Stream.Transcripts/twitch/2266603018 (2024-10-03) - Biology 101_4 -- (3 Oct 2024)/2266603018 (2024-10-03) - Biology 101_4 -- (3 Oct 2024).vtt

WEBVTT

00:44.741 --> 00:45.861
We might want sound.

00:45.881 --> 00:51.383
You're scheduled for 60 minutes next.

01:13.268 --> 01:17.997
He's going on French, British, Italian, Japanese television.

01:19.399 --> 01:21.303
People everywhere are starting to listen to him.

01:22.726 --> 01:23.467
It's embarrassing.

02:03.812 --> 02:05.555
I don't know what I'm doing here with the volume.

02:05.595 --> 02:06.977
Good morning, ladies and gentlemen.

02:07.017 --> 02:07.939
Welcome to the show.

02:07.979 --> 02:10.683
This is Giga Home Biological Biology 101.

02:10.723 --> 02:17.574
In case you want to know who you're listening to, you're listening to somebody who chased tenure for about 20 years.

02:17.614 --> 02:18.195
You can find

02:19.076 --> 02:23.960
the record of that work on PubMed by searching for my last name and my first two initials.

02:25.861 --> 02:37.230
You will see that I'm a pretty average level productivity in neuroscience, so average that I didn't make tenure after a lot of time and dedication, a lot of blood, sweat, and tears.

02:38.691 --> 02:40.132
A lot of stress for my family.

02:40.732 --> 02:45.994
A lot of people sacrifice a lot to try and get to be a part of academic science and never make it.

02:46.194 --> 02:47.214
I'm one of those people.

02:48.875 --> 02:56.157
Unfortunately, for my personal story, I really think that wasn't fair because the pandemic really caused me to need to speak out.

02:56.217 --> 03:04.100
And speaking out about the pandemic in the context of academic biology in 2020 was not something that very many people did.

03:05.781 --> 03:20.095
And so if you want to find the latest year of work that I've done, you go to stream.gigahome.bio where you can find our PeerTube channel that's like YouTube but without logging in and without analytics and paid for by viewers of this stream only.

03:20.695 --> 03:25.940
You can find a clips channel there, you can find a calendar that we're trying to follow as best we can, and you can find the

03:26.741 --> 03:38.411
the videos that underlie this Biology 101 and Uncertainty 101 coursework, and the books that you need to download, including the new one today, which I will show you the link for in a second.

03:39.272 --> 03:47.879
There is an archive of videos that I think are important, and there's also an archive from my friend Mark Kulak in Boston, Massachusetts, Housatonic ITS.

03:49.140 --> 03:57.808
who can also be found on YouTube, on a Housatonic Live channel, and also on Twitch, and on Rumble, and on BitChute.

03:58.669 --> 04:07.016
He's everywhere, and he's got his own website with really the premier archive of these charlatans and their mentors.

04:07.776 --> 04:15.403
The way that this charlatanism was developed over time, I think Mark is one of the guys who's really trying to put together the people map,

04:17.486 --> 04:31.950
And with that people map, of course, I'm trying to help him refine the biological idea map that defines these charlatans and their acolytes on social media there in blue.

04:32.290 --> 04:36.011
I see Solar Fire already noticed that we added the Dennis Noble book.

04:36.791 --> 04:38.612
I'm really excited about that book.

04:39.292 --> 04:42.237
and I'm really excited to add him to the course.

04:42.277 --> 04:47.064
He's somebody that I've been aware of for a while and I just haven't wanted to drop his name yet because

04:48.925 --> 04:52.867
You know, he's one of the giant's shoulders upon which I stand.

04:53.268 --> 04:58.131
A lot of my impressions of biology are influenced by thinkers like him.

04:58.911 --> 05:04.514
Ladies and gentlemen, intramuscular injection of any combination of substances with the intent of augmenting the immune system is dumb.

05:04.554 --> 05:07.196
Transfection in healthy humans was always criminally negligent.

05:07.716 --> 05:11.579
And RNA cannot pandemic because viruses are not pattern integrities.

05:12.219 --> 05:15.543
And actually, these ideas are why we're teaching Biology 101.

05:15.784 --> 05:20.469
And that third one, RNA cannot pandemic, viruses are not pattern integrities, is actually going to come up today.

05:20.489 --> 05:30.482
I'm really excited, because actually, in addition to the book that Solar Fire noticed, the understanding

05:31.388 --> 05:32.649
Living Systems book.

05:33.450 --> 05:39.135
There's another book that I'm adding and it is Schrodinger, Erwin Schrodinger's book, What is Life?

05:39.975 --> 05:42.037
And then the Mind and Matter essays.

05:42.898 --> 05:51.005
Ladies and gentlemen, we have been fooled into arguing about what they want us to argue and arguing with who they want us to argue with.

05:52.034 --> 06:05.100
and participating by argumenting with them, or even worse, by just listening to them argue and accept their conclusions, we have accepted the premise of the narrative by which our children will be enslaved if we do not escape.

06:06.041 --> 06:08.321
because we woke up in this ourselves.

06:08.661 --> 06:10.162
We inherited this from our parents.

06:10.202 --> 06:20.044
We have been governed by mythology for a long time, but it has become to a capital M malevolent level because of social media and our acquiescence to it.

06:20.804 --> 06:33.086
Ladies and gentlemen, they are trying to hide one specific thing that the population pyramid hid and expected all cause mortality increase that would last for a few years, if not longer,

06:33.906 --> 06:49.100
And they have used this biological certainty and twisted it around with murder and lies, especially supplementary oxygen, opioid deaths, this kind of thing, and told you that it was a national security emergency based on a possible lab leak virus.

06:49.841 --> 06:56.107
And that this lab leak virus was responsible for all of these excess deaths, and these excess deaths were already expected.

06:56.806 --> 07:06.775
They were built into the population pyramid of all Western countries, and that includes the one-child China, that before one-child policy had big families, too.

07:07.535 --> 07:24.250
And right after World War II, this bump of big families is getting older and older, and now they're about to die over the next decade, and that was going to be a problem for all of these Western nations, because mismanagement of this large, elderly, aging population could have bankrupt any given Western nation, and they've known that.

07:25.256 --> 07:32.462
And so collectively, all together, that's the reason why they coordinated, the reason why China would coordinate with us, because they have the same problem.

07:33.303 --> 07:42.891
And so it's okay to coordinate with us about this, and it's okay to use a similar mythology on their population, because they have the same problem.

07:44.873 --> 07:49.217
And so they use the same solutions, lies and murder.

07:50.373 --> 08:01.698
And that's why there's no epidemiological evidence of spread and that's why the lawyers in America for the last 10 years won't talk about restoring strict liability to all pharmaceutical products or how this is a Seventh Amendment violation from 1984 on.

08:03.699 --> 08:09.121
And the way that they've done it is with an illusion of consensus about a novel virus.

08:10.609 --> 08:18.981
They all agree that there was a novel virus that millions of people were killed by, that millions more were saved by because of the wonderful invention of transfection.

08:19.843 --> 08:24.189
And this could definitely happen again because, I mean, laboratory viruses are real.

08:26.693 --> 08:28.514
and pandemics are real.

08:28.554 --> 08:44.578
That's the illusion of consensus that spans from Tony Fauci and Peter Daszak all the way over to Kevin McCarran and Charles Rixey on the totally five standard deviations away from the middle of the narrative crazy people.

08:45.698 --> 08:53.840
On either side, it doesn't matter where you go, they all agree you can't find one person at the International COVID Summit that will tell you anything else.

08:54.892 --> 08:58.473
You can't find one person on Team Robert Malone that'll tell you anything else.

08:58.973 --> 09:03.954
Quite frankly, you can't find anyone at ICANN or CHD that will tell you anything else.

09:05.055 --> 09:06.735
It's quite extraordinary.

09:08.615 --> 09:13.357
And of course, what they've substituted here is that COVID shots are bad, just don't talk about 2020.

09:13.517 --> 09:18.658
And the reason why they don't want you to talk about 2020 is because if you do,

09:20.219 --> 09:26.160
you will realize that these people were talking about endemicity for years now.

09:26.220 --> 09:40.643
They've been warning about this possibility that if a virus gets out and it becomes endemic, you know, that's the most dangerous thing is that a zoonosis would not be sufficiently controlled, that we wouldn't take it seriously enough.

09:40.803 --> 09:44.584
And then before you know it, we'll have another background problem.

09:46.001 --> 10:02.915
you know, the background problems like smallpox and measles and mumps and rubella and measles and rotavirus and all these background problems that without the vaccine schedule would be overwhelming our hospitals and killing half of our babies.

10:03.995 --> 10:06.057
That's the story that they would like you to believe.

10:06.097 --> 10:14.284
And so we don't want to contribute to the already absolutely insane level of endemic dangers to our babies.

10:14.926 --> 10:19.648
that they are completely vulnerable to without the help of vaccines.

10:20.148 --> 10:31.991
And so if there were to be some kind of crazy, some kind of crazy novel virus, well then everybody agrees that we would not want it to become endemic.

10:36.373 --> 10:39.694
Laurie Garrett is the name of the journalist

10:42.423 --> 11:10.107
who declared in the CNN documentary in 2019 that that would be the worst case scenario that any of these things would go endemic because then they would contribute to this already devastating level of disease in the background that, you know, if it wasn't for public health and the modern miracle of vaccines, all of us would be deformed and half deaf and half of us wouldn't even be alive.

11:13.959 --> 11:26.643
Now the trick here to remember in the big picture of endemicity is that because we don't have any data from 2020 and before about coronaviruses like we do now, there's really no way to differentiate this from a background.

11:27.363 --> 11:28.424
Zero, none.

11:29.444 --> 11:34.846
This entire signal could have been present before 2020 and they've just started testing for it and told us it was there.

11:34.886 --> 11:40.987
That's one of the more simple explanations of the lying that has gone on.

11:41.067 --> 11:42.488
It could be even worse than that.

11:44.195 --> 11:57.641
It could be that the background signal isn't even what they say it is, but it's just noise that people like the guy from MetaBiota have been telling us is dark matter of living things.

11:58.781 --> 12:03.183
It could just be noise that is being misconstrued as something going endemic.

12:03.243 --> 12:09.766
It doesn't even need to be a background with a significantly characterizable signal.

12:11.121 --> 12:21.886
That's how far away you and I and your doctor and most people in the world are from having a useful grasp of what these signals actually mean.

12:23.067 --> 12:29.830
Essentially, most of us are interpreting these signals based on the information that comes in through this machine.

12:29.890 --> 12:30.290
That's it.

12:32.331 --> 12:34.152
We've never done an experiment.

12:34.192 --> 12:35.853
We've never seen the reagents.

12:35.893 --> 12:37.614
We've never ordered a test.

12:37.634 --> 12:40.095
We've never designed one and tried to optimize it.

12:41.400 --> 13:08.056
And so it's very, very difficult to overstate how absurd it is that the simple fact is, is that because we have no data from before 2020, there is scientifically zero chance of us ever being able to differentiate between a background signal that was always there and something that they tell us is a novel thing

13:09.206 --> 13:12.251
that has slowly progressed toward endemicity.

13:14.394 --> 13:16.177
Endemicity being background, of course.

13:21.055 --> 13:31.999
Now, yesterday or the day before, rather, I gave a presentation to the Doctors for COVID Ethics International in the UK, Stephen Frost's group, and Charles Kovas' group.

13:32.759 --> 13:42.983
And I tried very hard to give some supplementary questions that could allow people to ask these questions efficiently to their friends and to these authorities.

13:43.163 --> 13:45.864
And so if you haven't seen that, please go back and check it out.

13:47.265 --> 13:56.798
The bottom line is, is that I think we've really, we've got a good handle on the illusion of consensus and the limited spectrum of debate that they've used to kind of sustain it.

13:57.793 --> 13:58.574
Let me say that again.

13:59.074 --> 14:03.819
The illusion of consensus is sustained by the limited spectrum of debate.

14:03.999 --> 14:13.728
So the fact that all these people in blue agree that we need to fear free-range, gain-of-function RNA molecules is one side of the hog trap.

14:14.189 --> 14:20.414
The fact that these people up here are starting to kind of agree that there might not be any viruses at all

14:21.135 --> 14:35.546
is also another part of the hog trap because they're also asking what feel to be very relevant questions, but in fact, they definitely, they definitely are not.

14:36.347 --> 14:46.475
Very similar way to these people asking a question about lab leak or natural virus or evolution in response to the transfection are all questions that unfortunately,

14:50.313 --> 14:52.675
they result in the enslavement of your children.

14:52.735 --> 15:05.889
And so again, behind me, of course, I don't have to explain to you that those people on PBS NewsHour and on the BBC were never going to save us from the natural viruses that they claim couldn't possibly be a laboratory leak.

15:06.570 --> 15:10.374
Mother Nature is more than capable of doing this to us.

15:11.997 --> 15:31.687
And so you can see the different sides of the trap when you realize that in all of these people, there are people who can understand how the PCR could be used and how it is used on an academic bench to great extent to be high fidelity, but not for diagnostics.

15:31.747 --> 15:35.029
It could easily be explained by any of these people over here.

15:35.089 --> 15:37.510
They could have explained it four years ago.

15:38.612 --> 15:46.475
They could have also explained what transfection was and what transformation was and why those terms were pretty ubiquitous before the pandemic.

15:47.375 --> 15:51.497
Robert Malone's seminal paper in 1986 or whatever, it has transfection in the title.

15:56.326 --> 15:59.568
liposomal RNA transfection.

15:59.628 --> 16:10.755
He actually published a paper with those words in the title describing what is essentially what they rolled out as a countermeasure for SARS-CoV-2 in 2021.

16:13.578 --> 16:16.300
And there's no way to misinterpret this.

16:16.380 --> 16:21.583
We're not stretching the truth or taking things out of context.

16:21.643 --> 16:23.225
This is the actual truth.

16:23.285 --> 16:38.335
Transfection and transformation are words that all academic biologists should have known the definition of and should have been screaming from the rooftops in objection to the characterization of a transfection first published by Robert Malone and Inder Verma

16:38.955 --> 16:44.359
a lipid nanoparticle RNA-based transfection for luciferase.

16:46.400 --> 16:55.886
I mean, do you understand that the first time transfection with a lipid nanoparticle using the RNA for luciferase

16:57.423 --> 17:00.545
was published was a Robert Malone and Inder Verma paper.

17:00.706 --> 17:17.619
And then at the beginning of the pandemic, when Robert Malone and Steve Kirsch and Brett Weinstein came out in 2021, these people, what are you doing?

17:20.821 --> 17:22.382
Yeah, but I, sorry.

17:23.463 --> 17:25.225
These people were,

17:26.311 --> 17:27.352
We're pushing this.

17:27.933 --> 17:29.735
I totally broke my concentration.

17:34.782 --> 17:35.082
Shit.

17:40.108 --> 17:40.989
What was I saying?

17:41.070 --> 17:42.652
Somebody in the chat helped me out.

17:45.231 --> 18:01.315
I am just frustrated because we are here right now and Robert Malone and Steve Kirsch and Brett Weinstein were all coming out at the same time telling us stories where they already knew at the beginning.

18:01.375 --> 18:11.257
They could have told you right then because Robert Malone knew that the words lipid nanoparticle and RNA and transfection all went together.

18:12.037 --> 18:14.617
He knew that from his work with Indervirna.

18:15.058 --> 18:20.859
So the idea that this guy is coming to save us by teaching Robert F. Kennedy Jr.

18:20.919 --> 18:38.542
what's going on, by teaching CHD and the rest of America what's going on, by leading the FLCCC doctors to let them know what's going on, leading these international COVID summits for five years to let everyone know what's going on, but have never told everyone that this is just a transfection,

18:39.710 --> 18:41.972
It's not an investigational vaccine.

18:44.534 --> 18:46.655
And they could have told you that from the very beginning.

18:46.695 --> 18:48.136
And why didn't they tell you that?

18:48.196 --> 18:53.881
Because then informed consent and the part about saying no would have been the obvious choice.

18:57.691 --> 19:00.253
but they had to use the murder and lies.

19:00.313 --> 19:03.535
They had to give a chance for the murder and lies to take hold.

19:03.995 --> 19:13.060
They had to give a chance for the narrative about censored social media and censored dissidents to take hold.

19:13.120 --> 19:16.622
And then after that, they stepped forward to say limited things.

19:17.083 --> 19:24.167
Again, to define a limited spectrum of debate that would allow the clock to run all the way to now in 2024,

19:26.550 --> 19:42.044
where we are almost trapped in a totalitarian control of our narrative by our acquiescence to social media and by the programmed rise of acolytes as heroes.

19:43.706 --> 19:50.332
These people were chosen and they were always going to go through where they're going right now.

19:51.380 --> 19:53.441
They might not quite be where they wanted to be.

19:53.541 --> 20:04.747
Maybe the optimum scenario was what Brett Weinstein says in his pinned video, that Donald Trump should have chose Robert F. Kennedy Jr.

20:04.907 --> 20:07.388
as his vice president to be a unity party.

20:08.325 --> 20:25.739
And so maybe right now where we are with this little Trojan horse, you know, Maha movement, where everybody just considers like Donald Trump and Bobby Kennedy to be a unity party or wants them to consider that, that's what Brett Weinstein and Robert Malone's team of meddlers would like you to believe.

20:26.300 --> 20:29.162
You know, Pierre, Corey, all those guys were on stage.

20:30.123 --> 20:34.867
This entire group of people, his one group of meddlers,

20:35.922 --> 20:45.045
It's the only way to explain why all of these people have been so intimately involved in everyone's international experience.

20:47.726 --> 20:54.689
There's no way to explain why somebody like Tom Cowan is known so much around the world unless you're going to explain it by his book.

20:56.510 --> 21:02.852
There's no way to explain why Andy Kaufman would be so well known around the world unless you're going to explain it

21:03.419 --> 21:09.261
in some way his association with these people, because they have risen in parallel.

21:10.381 --> 21:27.106
They have declared each other interesting from the very beginning, retweeting each other, posting opposing substacks, you know, a response to so-and-so, here's a list of people who really bug me.

21:28.715 --> 21:33.317
And it's all them pointing to each other or to these people behind here, of course, right?

21:33.337 --> 21:38.158
It's always okay to say that Tony Fauci is a bad guy or Deborah Birx is a bad guy.

21:38.178 --> 21:40.219
It's always okay for all of them to agree on that.

21:40.259 --> 21:44.801
But in addition, then they all disagree within each other.

21:46.221 --> 21:55.045
And that's the magic of seeing the no virus people for what they are now and seeing for how wonderful a place it is to learn biology 101.

21:58.120 --> 22:02.541
because that's really what they're trying to also put you on the wrong footing of.

22:02.581 --> 22:23.788
If you take the no virus thing for what they say it is, you're gonna miss all kinds of stuff about the beauty of this irreducible complexity that we can see, that we have studied, that we have measured, that we can quantify, and we could look further into if we understood it correctly.

22:25.049 --> 22:28.490
And that's what I think people like Dennis Nobel and his books can help.

22:28.910 --> 22:36.613
And that's what I think Erwin Schrodinger, although people don't want you to think of this book this way.

22:37.173 --> 22:53.258
I'm pretty confident that in my reading of this book, this is a physicist trying to make an argument or help biologists to make an argument, help biologists to believe in something that I don't think is

22:54.952 --> 22:56.453
is necessary to believe in.

22:58.435 --> 23:03.279
I don't need to take this part on faith, but it's very, very, very interesting book.

23:03.899 --> 23:05.661
And so this is also now available.

23:06.761 --> 23:08.223
I don't know where I am in my slide deck.

23:09.183 --> 23:10.184
I mean, this is Twitter, right?

23:10.945 --> 23:12.686
This is Twitter in 2024.

23:13.807 --> 23:19.672
It is just this, you know, analogy here and we wanna get out of it and we just gotta get out of the chair.

23:19.812 --> 23:21.893
All we gotta do is get up out of the chair

23:22.722 --> 23:25.743
and start teaching the biology that this is.

23:25.783 --> 23:27.044
That's what we're going to do today.

23:27.084 --> 23:27.944
That's why we're here.

23:27.964 --> 23:32.406
And let me see where this is.

23:32.526 --> 23:33.346
Don't I have it there?

23:33.386 --> 23:33.606
Yeah.

23:33.686 --> 23:40.969
So if I go to this next slide, you will see at gigaohmbiological.com slash stuff.

23:44.741 --> 23:47.324
You can find the biology 101 text.

23:47.444 --> 23:52.951
Remember that the this link stuff is only at the very, very bottom of my homepage.

23:52.971 --> 23:54.352
So you got to scroll all the way down.

23:54.372 --> 23:57.836
And there's those little links at the bottom about and whatever.

23:57.896 --> 23:59.178
And then one is called stuff.

23:59.218 --> 24:00.019
And if you click to that,

24:00.714 --> 24:04.575
You'll be able to see the uploads that I have available for the day.

24:05.596 --> 24:07.757
There's also a slide deck underneath this.

24:07.797 --> 24:08.917
I just cut this picture short.

24:08.977 --> 24:14.639
But up there, you can see the book that we're going to use and start with today.

24:15.500 --> 24:26.024
So let me go over to that book and see if we can get started on this.

24:26.044 --> 24:27.084
Is this going to work?

24:33.635 --> 24:47.278
yes okay so i don't know that's not the cover that i have um but the the thing that i've uploaded is this one so it's this little book which is quite short and then it's also mind and matter

24:49.750 --> 24:53.872
And it's all interesting reading and it's very influential reading.

24:53.912 --> 24:58.695
This is, you know, a lot of people have read this and a lot of people have thought about these ideas.

24:58.735 --> 25:04.537
And I think they're worth thinking about for us as we go forward.

25:05.278 --> 25:07.339
So let me make myself a little smaller here.

25:11.377 --> 25:19.396
So let's see, I gotta go through, oh yeah, this is the introduction and the table of contents, so memory of my parents.

25:20.491 --> 25:29.013
When I was a young mathematics, this is actually a introduction by Roger Penrose, 1991.

25:29.573 --> 25:30.633
I'll just read this quick.

25:31.513 --> 25:39.035
When I was a young mathematics student in the early 1950s, I did not read a great deal, but what I did read, at least if I completed a book, was usually by Erwin Schrodinger.

25:39.555 --> 25:47.397
I always found his writing to be compelling, and there was an excitement of discovery with the prospect of gaining some genuinely new understanding about this mysterious world in which we live.

25:48.140 --> 25:58.689
None of his writings possess more of this quality than his classic What is Life, which is, as I now realize, must surely rank among the most influential science writings of this century.

25:58.709 --> 26:11.139
It represents a powerful attempt to comprehend some of the most, some of the genuine mysteries of life, made by a physicist whose deep insights had done so much to change the way in which we understand what the world is made of.

26:11.974 --> 26:28.705
The book's cross-disciplinary sweep was unusual for its time and is written in an endearing, if perhaps disarming, modesty at the level it makes it possible to non-specialists and to the young who makes it accessible, excuse me, to non-specialists and to the young who might aspire to be scientists.

26:28.745 --> 26:41.914
Indeed, many scientists who have made fundamental contributions to biology, such as Haldane and Crick, have admitted to being strongly influenced by, although not always in complete agreement with, the broad ranging ideas put forward here

26:42.414 --> 26:50.856
by this highly original and profoundly thoughtful physicist.

26:50.876 --> 27:05.040
How often do we hear that quantum efforts have little relevance to the study of biology, or that we eat food in order to gain energy,

27:05.950 --> 27:13.359
This serves to emphasize the relevance, what are you doing, of what his life has for us today.

27:13.399 --> 27:14.981
So I think this is going to be fun.

27:15.021 --> 27:22.010
And if you haven't read it yet or you've never popped this book into your readings, this is going to be a really exciting introduction.

27:22.050 --> 27:23.172
I think it'll be enjoyable.

27:23.212 --> 27:24.794
We'll do it for an hour and then I'm going to

27:25.915 --> 27:52.431
Well, we're gonna do it for a little while and then I'm gonna play a short video of of Dennis Nobel Dennis Noble about about DNA and get into where we're really going with this on his shoulders So this is a preface now and this one is written by Dr. Schrodinger and so I think it's worth reading Maybe I'll come out a little bit here

27:53.683 --> 28:01.526
A scientist is supposed to have a complete and thorough knowledge, at first hand, of some subjects, and is therefore usually not expected to write on any topic which he is not a master.

28:01.566 --> 28:05.547
This is regarded as a matter of noblesse obligée.

28:05.587 --> 28:08.148
I don't know if that's French.

28:08.188 --> 28:09.088
I'm reading it that way.

28:10.228 --> 28:17.050
For the present purpose, I beg to denounce the noblesse, if any, and to be freed of ensuing obligation.

28:17.230 --> 28:18.271
And his excuse is,

28:19.434 --> 28:25.059
that we have inherited from our forefathers the keen longing for unified, all-embraced knowledge.

28:25.720 --> 28:35.329
The very name given to the highest institutions of learning reminds us that from antiquity and throughout many centuries, the universal aspect has been the only one to be given full credit.

28:36.330 --> 28:44.558
But the spread both in width and depth of the multifarious branches of knowledge during the last hundred odd years has confronted us with a queer dilemma.

28:45.600 --> 28:55.349
We feel clearly that we are only now beginning to acquire reliable material for welding together the sum total of all that is known into a whole.

28:56.830 --> 29:05.178
But on the other hand, it has become next to impossible for a single mind to fully command more than a small specialized portion of it.

29:07.079 --> 29:08.581
I don't really think that's true.

29:08.641 --> 29:09.842
I think that's one of the

29:11.786 --> 29:25.221
That's one of the illusions that gets created by this manufacturing of this breadth of false knowledge where most of it is just conjecture and assumption based on assumption with logic in between and p-values and whatever.

29:25.281 --> 29:29.706
So we've created this illusion that nobody can understand it all, nobody can read it all.

29:30.587 --> 29:34.548
But in reality, I don't think that that's where we are.

29:34.628 --> 29:39.290
And I think that is an illusion that we need to break, at least for our children.

29:39.850 --> 29:49.553
We need to break this illusion that we can't have a broad enough understanding of reality that common sense can function, because I definitely think we can.

29:49.593 --> 29:53.414
And in fact, as a system, I think we've evolved to

29:54.815 --> 29:55.458
to be there.

29:55.518 --> 29:57.285
That's what it means to be human.

29:57.908 --> 30:00.057
I can see no other escape from this dilemma.

30:02.537 --> 30:12.760
lest our aim be lost forever, then that some of us should venture to embark on a synthesis of facts and theories, albeit secondhand and incomplete knowledge of some of them.

30:12.821 --> 30:19.503
See, and so he's kind of accepting the idea that there's too much to know, but then he's gonna try anyway.

30:19.563 --> 30:27.145
And I would just argue that there isn't too much to know and that there is a way to synthesize across disciplines.

30:27.205 --> 30:29.406
And I don't think that what he's attempting to do here

30:30.146 --> 30:42.810
is silly, but rather what he's attempting to do here should be done a lot more often in order to prevent or provide pushback to this ever-increasing pile of

30:47.634 --> 30:58.805
of false knowledge, of untested, unreplicated observations that are somehow stacked up in some way to represent progress.

30:59.305 --> 31:01.387
So the difficulties of language are not negligible.

31:01.427 --> 31:03.129
What he's about to say here is that I'm German.

31:04.310 --> 31:11.918
One native speech is a closely fitting garment and one never feels quite at ease when it is not immediately available.

31:12.748 --> 31:14.649
So he thanks a few people that helped him.

31:16.750 --> 31:21.733
And the headlines of the numerous sections were intended to be marginal summaries.

31:22.314 --> 31:27.697
And so the headlines are actually really well done, but he says they weren't intended to be, so that's kind of funny.

31:29.658 --> 31:33.781
So the general and character of the purpose of this investigation.

31:33.861 --> 31:35.142
So what are we gonna do here?

31:35.902 --> 31:38.323
And this is really important to Biology 101.

31:41.260 --> 31:51.184
Because if you look at Biology 101, what you will, oh, is that not on?

31:51.204 --> 31:55.406
Maybe that's not on.

31:56.927 --> 31:57.547
Oh, that wasn't on.

31:57.967 --> 32:04.170
So if you look at Biology 101, of course, what we talked about last week, I don't know if I have those notes here.

32:04.210 --> 32:04.590
Maybe I do.

32:05.915 --> 32:28.000
Two weeks ago now that I'm starting the course again is we started and talked about This idea that that biology is organized and they talk about the biology from the bottom up right that was this this right here and So we're we were talking about how they always organize I apologize to be a little out of focus if I don't lift this up There we go

32:29.088 --> 32:36.156
Um, that they always start down here with genetics and they want us to talk about genes and cells and all this stuff, proteins and all that.

32:36.176 --> 32:38.958
That's where biology one-on-one always starts.

32:40.360 --> 32:44.504
And in this book that we're looking at now, he's also going to start there.

32:45.846 --> 32:47.687
He wants to start there because why?

32:47.727 --> 32:49.029
Well, because he's a physicist.

32:50.836 --> 32:54.503
And so it's a physicist's approach to the subject.

32:54.583 --> 33:01.235
And so the important thing here is to get the idea of what a physicist would think

33:02.509 --> 33:05.189
are the most important things about biology.

33:05.230 --> 33:16.011
Like how does a physicist, have you ever heard this thing where there's a biologist and then behind him, there's somebody making a smirk because that's a chemist who thinks that everything in biology is chemistry.

33:16.692 --> 33:22.393
And behind that chemist, there's a physicist who's making a smirk because he's like, yeah, but chemistry is all physics.

33:22.853 --> 33:29.514
And then behind the physics guy, there's a mathematician going, yeah, but then, and so the idea is,

33:31.192 --> 33:32.992
that at the end is mathematics.

33:33.032 --> 33:49.936
Now, the first and most important message to take home from this, and I can't stress enough how, even though we're gonna have a little discussion about it today, nothing is better than sitting down quietly outside or somewhere where you can hear the wind and reading this all by yourself.

33:50.036 --> 33:55.058
Because this first chapter is absolutely spectacular.

33:55.278 --> 34:00.539
And before I knew that this chapter existed, I was looking for someone

34:02.489 --> 34:05.450
to show me how to teach these ideas.

34:05.670 --> 34:09.570
And this is, I don't need to change anything here.

34:09.730 --> 34:26.514
All I need to do is just read the highlights and you will, if you haven't already, I guarantee you it's not possible that this half an hour won't enhance significantly what you think about the irreducible complexity and how sacred it is.

34:26.714 --> 34:26.914
I mean,

34:28.286 --> 34:29.667
It's just, it's spectacular.

34:29.687 --> 34:36.911
And I've wanted to do this for a while now, so I'm happy I finally got to this point where I can do all this for you, or for you, with you.

34:37.871 --> 34:46.756
So the reason that this little book arose is not because math.

34:46.816 --> 34:48.137
He says it right here, right?

34:48.177 --> 34:50.318
This lecture, oh, sorry.

34:51.218 --> 34:57.542
This most dreaded weapon, mathematical deduction, would hardly be utilized.

34:58.308 --> 35:05.053
And the reason for this was not that the subject was simple enough to be explained without mathematics, but rather...

35:13.055 --> 35:20.138
I don't know why it's not highlighting that anymore, but rather it was too much involved to be fully accessible to mathematics.

35:20.398 --> 35:23.659
That's very different, and that's a very wonderful admission.

35:23.719 --> 35:27.020
Already we're talking about an irreducible complexity.

35:27.781 --> 35:39.105
Another feature which at least induced a semblance of popularity was the lecturer's intention to make clear the fundamental idea which hovers between biology and physics to both the physicist and the biologist.

35:40.117 --> 35:44.199
The idea that hovers between biology and physics.

35:44.320 --> 35:44.800
Interesting.

35:46.521 --> 35:53.165
For actually, in spite of a variety of topics involved, the whole enterprise is intended to convey only one idea, one small comment, and a large important question.

35:53.885 --> 35:57.848
In order not to lose our way, it may be useful to outline a plan very briefly in advance.

35:57.908 --> 36:02.771
The larger and more important and very much discussed question is,

36:04.599 --> 36:15.468
How can the events in space and time, which take place within the spatial boundary of a living organism, be accounted for by physics and chemistry?

36:17.029 --> 36:20.933
And so this is the premise of the Biology 101 book, Chapter 1.

36:21.974 --> 36:26.898
Campbell might be on the 13th edition.

36:26.958 --> 36:28.359
Now this is the 11th edition.

36:28.419 --> 36:31.361
The very first chapter is about the idea

36:32.441 --> 36:35.204
that the basis for life is chemistry and physics.

36:36.925 --> 36:44.393
And at the center of this is the chemistry of a molecule called DNA, which is just made up of chemicals.

36:46.655 --> 36:52.621
And they're very special chemicals that fit together, I guess, in a very special way and are capable of carrying information.

36:52.681 --> 36:53.662
That's the idea.

36:55.236 --> 37:07.204
And so how can all the things that take place in space and time within the spatial boundary of a living organism be accounted for by physics and chemistry?

37:07.664 --> 37:11.266
Now, the question is, do you think that this physicist believes that's true?

37:11.366 --> 37:13.007
And the answer must be yes.

37:13.908 --> 37:15.009
Otherwise, what are we doing?

37:15.949 --> 37:20.973
The preliminary answer, which this little book will endeavor to expound and establish, can be summarized as follows.

37:21.880 --> 37:34.081
The obvious inability of present-day physics and chemistry to account for such events is no reason at all for doubting that they can be accounted for.

37:35.278 --> 37:37.479
for by those sciences.

37:38.179 --> 37:42.060
Sorry, I was switching between the cameras, so I read that kind of awkwardly.

37:42.120 --> 37:47.342
The preliminary answer which this little book will endeavor to expound and establish can be summarized as follows.

37:48.142 --> 37:58.645
The obvious inability of present-day physics and chemistry to account for such events is no reason at all for doubting that they can be accounted for by those sciences.

38:01.181 --> 38:20.586
Even though present-day physics and chemistry cannot account for all of the things that we see happening through space and time within the boundaries of a living organism, there is no reason, according to Irwin, to doubt that it can't be accounted for by physics and chemistry.

38:23.747 --> 38:27.548
And so the premises of reductionist biology, reductionist science,

38:28.462 --> 38:33.266
that everything can be accounted for by physics and chemistry is what he believes.

38:34.648 --> 38:42.795
And it's just the limits of present day physics and chemistry that prevent us from seeing these mechanisms.

38:45.069 --> 38:49.353
Now that's not that dissimilar to what these guys would say, right?

38:50.194 --> 39:01.563
They see science, the Vatican II reorientation of the Catholic Church also sees science as not antagonistic to the Creator.

39:03.625 --> 39:08.790
But the elusively enticing argument is that by

39:10.399 --> 39:16.062
scientific investigation, we are just appreciating creation and appreciating the work of the creator.

39:16.702 --> 39:32.751
But that's a very fine line to watch and a very fine line to walk before you are ignoring the presence of the creator and assuming there is none, which is what he's talking about right here.

39:32.931 --> 39:38.714
That physics and chemistry, unless the creator is physics and chemistry, you see, now we're getting into the builder thing, right?

39:43.652 --> 39:48.514
So now remember, this is a physicist writing a biology book and a lot of biologists think this is a great book.

39:49.874 --> 40:08.402
And now, this next couple paragraphs I think are really vital to understanding how a physicist with, and that's what you see here, a physicist with a real honest, a real honest intention to bridge the gap that he just identified, a real intention

40:09.366 --> 40:14.412
to help biologists to understand and everyone to understand this.

40:15.773 --> 40:19.798
You could also see this statement here as a critique on modern physics and chemistry.

40:21.800 --> 40:27.226
You could also see this as Irwin saying that physics and chemistry is obviously not right yet.

40:28.476 --> 40:41.266
Because if it was right and we had a higher fidelity understanding of the material world, then we would better be able to explain what happens through space and time within the boundaries of a living organism.

40:43.888 --> 40:52.495
And so you don't have to read this like there is no God and everything is just random and it all emerges, it's emergent properties of Mother Nature.

40:52.896 --> 40:54.157
You don't have to read it like that.

40:54.197 --> 40:55.538
You can also read this

40:57.123 --> 41:20.689
an admission by a physicist that physics and chemistry Although we understand a lot or it seems like experimentally we can confirm a lot of a lot of phenomenon We don't know enough to be able to account for what occurs through space and time between the boundaries of within the boundaries of a living organism and Therefore physics and chemistry are still inadequate.

41:21.689 --> 41:25.450
I That's how I read it So

41:27.498 --> 41:34.702
That would be a very trivial remark if it weren't meant to stimulate the hope of achieving in a future what has not been achieved in the past.

41:35.102 --> 41:40.865
But the meaning is very much more positive that the inability up to the present moment is simply accounted for.

41:41.885 --> 41:52.111
Today, thanks to the ingenious work of biologists, mainly geneticists, during the last 30 or 40 years, enough is known about the actual material structure of organisms and about their functioning state to say that.

41:53.127 --> 42:00.854
and to tell precisely why present-day physics and chemistry could not possibly account for what happens in space and time within a living organism.

42:02.256 --> 42:03.116
He's gonna explain it?

42:04.938 --> 42:08.201
And this is the crucial thing for today.

42:08.241 --> 42:09.562
It's gonna take about 20 minutes.

42:09.602 --> 42:12.445
It's probably gonna ruin my throat, but I'm so excited to share it with you.

42:13.986 --> 42:14.627
And I hope I can

42:15.811 --> 42:24.799
I hope I can bring you to feel the importance of this or understand it or see it the way that I see it, because I think it's a really invigorating idea set.

42:25.459 --> 42:41.293
So the arrangement of atoms in the most vital parts of an organism and the interplay of these arrangements differ in a fundamental way from all those arrangements of Atomwoods, which physicists and chemists have hitherto made the subject of their experimental and theoretical research.

42:43.578 --> 43:03.130
The arrangement of the atoms in the most vital parts of an organism and the interplay of these arrangements differ in a fundamental way from all those arrangements of atoms which physicists and chemists have hitherto made the object of their experimental and theoretical research.

43:03.170 --> 43:12.135
Yet the difference, which I have just termed fundamental, is of such a kind that it might easily appear slight to anyone except a physicist.

43:13.507 --> 43:21.511
Who is thoroughly imbued with the knowledge that the laws of physics and chemistry are statistical throughout.

43:23.672 --> 43:26.313
And this is crucial to understand.

43:27.774 --> 43:32.736
And maybe this is part of the reason why statistics has been so

43:35.245 --> 43:49.211
ham-fistedly wielded in the medical sciences and in the biological sciences to try and do what it already has accomplished in physics and chemistry, but without the same level of statistical power, and you're going to see it in a minute.

43:50.555 --> 44:08.691
For it is in this relation to the statistical point of view that the structure of the vital parts of a living organism differs so entirely from that of any piece of matter that we physicists and chemists have ever handled physically in our laboratory or mentally at our writing desks.

44:10.353 --> 44:24.701
For it is in relation to the statistical point of view that the structure of the vital parts of the living organism differs so entirely from that of any piece of matter that we physicists or chemists have ever handled physically in our laboratories.

44:24.721 --> 44:25.862
I'm going to go right back to this.

44:26.462 --> 44:27.723
What is he already suggesting?

44:28.908 --> 44:33.632
that somewhere within the boundaries of a living organism is a pattern integrity.

44:33.672 --> 44:36.274
And pattern integrities don't behave like dirt.

44:36.854 --> 44:39.957
Pattern integrities don't behave like simple compounds.

44:40.017 --> 44:41.998
They don't behave like simple chemicals.

44:43.520 --> 44:44.540
They don't do it.

44:45.601 --> 44:55.229
Pattern integrities do stuff and maintain states and use and consume energy

44:56.550 --> 45:10.624
and are not always composed of the same atoms in the same arrangements, but somehow or another across space and time, sustained attributes grow and flourish.

45:13.166 --> 45:16.207
For it is in the relation to the statistical point of view.

45:16.287 --> 45:39.515
What happens inside of an animal is statistically, astronomically impossible to occur in a mud puddle, no matter how many lightning bolts you strike it with, no matter how much of these chemicals you put together in exactly the right components, in exactly the right arrangement, you're never gonna get them to behave like they behave over the 80 years of the life of a human.

45:41.493 --> 45:55.112
You can purify them all, you can put them all on shelves, you can carefully, you know, mix them all together and you'll never get carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and all these trace minerals to behave this way so consistently for so long.

45:56.374 --> 45:58.557
Chemistry and physics can't explain that.

46:07.205 --> 46:20.790
It is well nigh unthinkable that the laws and regularities thus discovered should happen to apply immediately to the behavior of systems which do not exhibit the structure on which those laws and regularities are based.

46:22.750 --> 46:29.193
We're not organized like the matter in the Earth's crust or the matter in the atmosphere.

46:29.233 --> 46:33.034
We're not organized like the matter in a liquid.

46:38.314 --> 46:42.848
We don't exhibit that behavior in the same way.

46:44.690 --> 46:55.319
The non-physicist cannot be expected even to grasp, let alone appreciate the relevance of, the difference in the statistical structure stated in terms so abstract as I have just used.

46:55.919 --> 47:11.552
To give the statement life and color, let me anticipate what will be explained in much more detail later, namely that the most essential part of a living cell, the chromosome fiber, may be suitably called an aperiodic crystal.

47:13.106 --> 47:19.311
In physics, we have dealt hitherto only with periodic crystals.

47:21.012 --> 47:25.576
To a humble physicist's mind, these are very interesting and complex objects.

47:26.297 --> 47:32.722
They constitute one of the most fascinating and complex material structures by which inanimate nature puzzles his wits.

47:34.023 --> 47:40.168
Yet, compared with the aperiodic crystal, they are rather plain and dull.

47:41.087 --> 48:04.604
The difference in structure is of the same kind as that between an ordinary wallpaper, in which the same pattern is repeated again and again in regular curiosity, and a masterpiece of embroidery, say a Raphael tapestry, which shows no dull repetition but an elaborate, coherent, meaningful design traced by the great master.

48:05.751 --> 48:12.940
In recalling the periodic crystal, one of the most complex objects of his research, I had in mind the physicist proper.

48:13.380 --> 48:24.633
Organic chemistry, indeed, in investigating more and more complex molecules, has come very much nearer to that aperiodic crystal, which, in my opinion, is the material carrier of life.

48:26.104 --> 48:36.170
and therefore it is a small wonder that the organic chemist has already made large and important contributions to the problem of life, whereas the physicist has made next to none."

48:37.151 --> 48:38.471
Hmm, interesting.

48:40.052 --> 48:41.373
This is a physicist talking.

48:42.694 --> 48:46.536
So the naive physicist's approach to the subject, and this is really so great.

48:47.257 --> 48:54.341
After having thus indicated very briefly the general idea, or rather the ultimate scope of our investigation, let me describe the line of attack.

48:55.518 --> 49:08.946
I propose to develop first what you might call a naive physicist's idea about organisms, that is, the ideas which might arise in the mind of a physicist who, after having learned his physics, and more especially the statistical foundation of his science,

49:10.555 --> 49:28.319
the statistical foundation of his science, begins to think about organisms and about the way they behave and function, and comes to ask himself conscientiously whether he, from what he has learned, from the point of view as if it's comparatively simple and clear, humble science, can make any relevant contributions to the question.

49:30.240 --> 49:31.320
It will turn out that he can.

49:31.900 --> 49:36.281
The next step must be to compare his theoretical anticipations to the biological facts.

49:38.340 --> 49:45.362
It will then turn out that, though on the whole his ideas seem quite sensible, they need to be appreciably amended.

49:46.142 --> 49:53.005
In this way we shall gradually approach the correct view, or to put it more modestly, the one that I propose as the correct one.

49:54.245 --> 50:00.727
Even if I should be right in this, I do not know whether my way of approach is really the best and simplest, but in short, it was mine.

50:02.097 --> 50:08.439
The naive physicist was myself, and I could not find any better or clearer way toward the goal than my own crooked one.

50:10.080 --> 50:15.941
So a good way of developing the naive physicist's ideas is to start from the odd, most ludicrous question.

50:16.882 --> 50:21.463
And this is good, so you've got to do this, actively follow this mind exercise with him.

50:22.423 --> 50:23.664
Why are atoms so small?

50:24.264 --> 50:26.025
And to begin with, they are very small indeed.

50:26.065 --> 50:30.186
Every little piece of matter handled in everyday life contains an enormous number of them.

50:31.178 --> 50:38.660
Many examples have been devised to bring this fact home to an audience, none of them more impressively than the one used by Lord Calvin.

50:40.621 --> 50:54.125
Suppose that you could mark the molecules in a glass of water and then pour the contents of the glass into the ocean and stir the latter thoroughly so as to distribute the marked molecules uniformly through the seven seas.

50:55.625 --> 51:23.448
Then you took a glass of water anywhere out of the ocean you would find about a hundred of your marked molecules The actual size of atoms lies between one five thousandth and one two thousandth of a wavelength of yellow light The comparison is significant because the wavelength roughly indicates the dimensions of the smallest grain still recognizable in a microscope Thus it will be seen that small Thank you that small

51:24.949 --> 51:27.231
the smallest grain still recognizable in the microscope.

51:27.271 --> 51:31.616
Thus it will be seen that such a grain still contains thousands of millions of atoms.

51:32.517 --> 51:35.840
So why are the atoms so small?

51:35.940 --> 51:40.945
Clearly the question is an evasion, for it is not really aimed at the size of the atoms.

51:41.005 --> 51:46.230
It is concerned with the size of organisms, more particularly with the size of our own corporeal selves.

51:48.152 --> 51:57.275
Indeed, the atom is so small, when referred to our civic unit of length, you know, our one that makes sense to our body size, a yard or a meter.

51:57.935 --> 52:05.298
In atomic physics, one is accustomed of using the angstrom, which is one tenth to the tenth power of a meter.

52:07.799 --> 52:08.659
Ten to the tenth

52:10.799 --> 52:11.740
power of a meter.

52:11.760 --> 52:12.641
I don't know how to say that.

52:12.661 --> 52:13.122
That's funny.

52:13.803 --> 52:20.931
Or in decimal notations, .0000000001 of a meter.

52:21.191 --> 52:23.694
Atomic diameters between one and two angstroms.

52:23.794 --> 52:27.399
Now those civic units are closely related to the size of our bodies.

52:28.001 --> 52:36.708
There's a story of tracing the yard back to the humor of an English king who put his counselors to ask what unit to adopt, and he stretched out his arm sideways and said, take the distance from the middle of my chest to my fingertips.

52:36.748 --> 52:37.528
That will do all right.

52:38.509 --> 52:41.011
True or not, the story is significant for our purpose.

52:41.051 --> 52:49.097
The king would naturally indicate a length comparable to that of his own body, knowing that anything else would be very inconvenient.

52:49.137 --> 52:51.899
With all his predictions for the Angstrom's unit,

52:52.492 --> 53:02.537
The physicist prefers to be told that his new suit will require six and a half yards of tweed rather than 65,000 millions of angstroms of tweed.

53:03.478 --> 53:14.564
It is thus being settled that our question really aims at the ratio of two lengths, that of our body and that of the atom, with an incontestable priority of independent existence on the size of the atom.

53:15.585 --> 53:21.788
The question truly reads, why must our bodies be so large compared to the atom?

53:22.858 --> 53:26.090
Are you already on this thought exercise?

53:27.432 --> 53:33.177
Because you know that there's kind of a limit in terms of sizes of living things.

53:33.237 --> 53:35.739
It doesn't scale down to infinity, right?

53:35.879 --> 53:47.249
Bacteria kind of are at that limit where these chemicals and physical properties of things can be arranged into a pattern integrity.

53:47.649 --> 53:50.312
It's not infinite that we can go down.

53:50.852 --> 53:53.474
So the ratio between the size of atoms

53:54.355 --> 54:01.219
And the size of these pattern integrities is kind of, there's a certain, you know, that's what he's trying to get at.

54:01.759 --> 54:12.306
And this is the difference between biology and aperiodic crystals and chemistry and physics and periodic crystals, is this distance.

54:13.286 --> 54:18.609
And the distance between them is important to grasp.

54:18.950 --> 54:20.771
That's what he's trying to get you to understand.

54:21.561 --> 54:26.305
because the aperiodic crystal doesn't emerge at this scale.

54:26.345 --> 54:28.026
It emerges at this scale.

54:28.066 --> 54:28.446
You get it?

54:28.606 --> 54:29.407
Are you sort of getting it?

54:31.075 --> 54:34.058
It thus being settled that our question really aims at the ratio of two links.

54:34.118 --> 54:54.976
Okay, so I can imagine that many keen students of physics or chemistry may have deplored the fact that every one of our sense organs forming one or more less substantial part of our body, and hence in the view of the magnitude of the said ratio, being itself composed of innumerable atoms is much too coarse to be affected by the impact of a single atom.

54:56.457 --> 54:57.698
So what are we saying here?

54:59.448 --> 55:04.193
cannot see or feel or hear single atoms.

55:04.273 --> 55:09.099
Our hypotheses with regard to them differ widely from the immediate findings of our gross sense organs.

55:09.119 --> 55:12.382
It cannot be put in, put to the test of direct inspection.

55:12.422 --> 55:20.692
In other words, we can't use our senses, our vision, our taste, our smell, our hearing, our touch to probe the

55:22.148 --> 55:30.652
the qualities of these things, atoms at this size scale, and our brain doesn't hear individual atoms.

55:31.573 --> 55:35.875
We don't detect individual atoms or photons hitting our eyes.

55:35.935 --> 55:37.376
So there's where he is.

55:39.002 --> 55:40.163
Must that be so?

55:41.164 --> 55:47.128
Is there an intrinsic reason why our sensory organs can't detect a single atom?

55:47.589 --> 55:48.509
Why is that?

55:49.110 --> 56:00.279
How does a physicist need to understand that so that a physicist can breach this gap between their understanding of things at the size scale of physics and then move up to this

56:01.257 --> 56:03.440
this several orders of magnitude.

56:03.560 --> 56:04.421
Why must it be so?

56:05.182 --> 56:16.877
Can we trace this back to a state of affairs, to some kind of principle, first principle, in order to ascertain and to understand why nothing else is compatible with the very laws of nature?

56:17.378 --> 56:24.803
So in other words, you must have atoms this small and pattern integrities that are composed of atoms have to be this much bigger.

56:25.343 --> 56:26.363
Why is that?

56:26.964 --> 56:32.127
Now for this, for once, is a problem for which a physicist is able to clear up completely.

56:32.187 --> 56:35.049
The answer to all the queries is the affirmative.

56:35.809 --> 56:38.811
It is absolutely required.

56:43.160 --> 56:44.501
I like insulated cups.

56:44.561 --> 56:51.306
I'm also terrified of them because you can get boiling water inside of them and it doesn't cool off very quickly so I had to take that slow.

56:54.188 --> 56:54.909
So working

56:56.004 --> 56:59.465
The working of an organism requires exact physical laws.

56:59.625 --> 57:09.108
If it were not so, if we were organisms so sensitive that a single atom, or even a few atoms, could make a perceptible impression on our senses, heavens what life would be like.

57:09.889 --> 57:25.694
To stress one point, an organism of that kind would most certainly not be capable of developing the kind of orderly thought which, after passing through a long sequence of earlier stages, ultimately results in forming, among many other ideas, the idea of an atom.

57:31.101 --> 57:31.541
It's deep.

57:34.664 --> 57:40.929
Couldn't come up with the idea of an atom if we were sensitive enough to sense individual atoms.

57:42.070 --> 57:50.136
Even though we select this one point, the following considerations would essentially apply also to the functioning of organs other than the brain and the sensorial system.

57:50.816 --> 57:56.381
Nevertheless, the one and only thing of paramount interest to us and ourselves that we feel and think and perceive.

57:59.011 --> 58:02.535
in ourselves is that we feel and think and perceive.

58:02.595 --> 58:12.707
To the physiological process which is responsible for thought and sense, all the others play an auxiliary part, at least from the human point of view, if not from the purely objective biology.

58:13.148 --> 58:16.251
And so he's just now hinting at the idea that our ability to think

58:17.012 --> 58:34.329
And our consciousness and the no-sphere that results from that collective thinking together, swimming in schools of thought, makes us unique and is maybe the highest part of our evolution thus till now, if you listen to these people.

58:34.809 --> 58:37.331
And so moreover, it will greatly facilitate our task

58:38.112 --> 58:46.999
if we choose for the investigation the process which is closely accompanied by subjective events even though we are ignorant to the true nature of this close parallelism.

58:48.482 --> 58:54.545
Indeed, in my very view, it lies outside of the range of natural science and very probably human understanding altogether.

58:55.125 --> 58:56.366
So we're not going to figure everything out.

58:56.386 --> 58:58.106
We're not going to understand consciousness yet.

58:58.146 --> 58:59.507
I think that's what he's admitting here.

59:00.167 --> 59:01.908
We are thus faced with the following question.

59:01.968 --> 59:17.695
Why should an organ like our brain with the sensorial system attached to it of necessity consist of an enormous number of atoms in order that its physically changing state should be in close and intimate correspondence with a highly developed thought?

59:22.242 --> 59:40.835
On what grounds is the latter task of the said organ incompatible with being, as a whole or in some of its peripheral parts which interact directly with the environment, a mechanism sufficiently refined and sensitive to respond to and register the impact of a single atom from outside?

59:42.130 --> 59:55.874
Why should an organ like our brain, with the sensorial system attached to it, of necessity consist of an enormous number of atoms, in order that its physically changing state should be in close, intimate correspondence with a highly developed thought?

59:56.454 --> 01:00:01.075
Why do we need such an enormous number of atoms to reach consciousness?

01:00:01.756 --> 01:00:06.537
On what grounds is the latter task of the said organ incompatible with being,

01:00:07.887 --> 01:00:16.452
A mechanism sufficiently refined and sensitive to respond to and register the impact of a single atom from outside.

01:00:19.554 --> 01:00:28.239
On what grounds is the latter task of the said organ incompatible with being as a whole or in some of its peripheral parts which interact directly with the environment?

01:00:28.860 --> 01:00:32.882
So why can't the brain detect individual atoms?

01:00:33.583 --> 01:00:37.345
The reason for this is what we call thought itself an ordinary thing.

01:00:38.682 --> 01:00:46.326
is that what we call thought itself is an orderly thing, and it can only be applied to material, i.e.

01:00:46.446 --> 01:00:50.348
to perceptions or experiences which have a certain degree of orderliness.

01:00:52.029 --> 01:00:53.329
This has two consequences.

01:00:53.389 --> 01:01:02.094
First, a physical organization, to be in close correspondence with thought, as my brain is with my thought, must be very well-ordered organization.

01:01:03.151 --> 01:01:10.096
And that means that the events that happen within it must obey strict physical laws, or at least to a very high degree of accuracy.

01:01:12.017 --> 01:01:25.947
And so what he's trying to suggest is that something that's happening inside of his brain, in the end, although it is composed of so many atoms, it's still behaving very orderly in response to things in the environment that are orderly.

01:01:27.830 --> 01:01:34.212
And that is indeed what a lot of neuroscientists have described in different words, of course, what the brain does.

01:01:34.272 --> 01:01:37.553
It brings in information, tries to find patterns.

01:01:37.593 --> 01:01:39.274
It has to filter the noise out.

01:01:39.834 --> 01:01:50.998
It finds patterns and tries to organize behavior in response to those patterns to increase the likelihood that the pattern integrity will remain intact and go on.

01:01:59.218 --> 01:02:11.710
The physical impressions made upon the physically well-organized system by other bodies from the outside obviously correspond to the perception and experience of the corresponding thought.

01:02:12.330 --> 01:02:36.794
Forming its material as a vibe called it therefore the physical interactions between our systems and others must as a rule themselves Possess a certain degree of physical orderliness that is to say they must to obey strict physical laws to a certain degree of accuracy and so now he's gonna tell you why it is that we needed to be so many orders of magnitude larger than the than the atoms and

01:02:38.285 --> 01:02:42.106
physical laws rest on atomic statistics and are therefore only approximate.

01:02:42.146 --> 01:02:58.809
This is so important to understand because as a non-physicist, a non-chemist, but I used to teach physics in high school, I can remember being inadequate at expressing these ideas, knowing that there was something to express here.

01:02:58.949 --> 01:03:05.771
And this is just like, this is like Derek Rose's, you know, rookie season here.

01:03:05.851 --> 01:03:07.171
This is unbelievably,

01:03:08.271 --> 01:03:09.452
unbelievably perfect.

01:03:10.212 --> 01:03:19.798
And why could all this not be fulfilled in the case of an organism composed of a moderate number of atoms only and sensitive already to the impact of one or two atoms only?

01:03:20.639 --> 01:03:35.989
Because we know all atoms perform, all the time, a completely disorderly heat motion which, so to speak, opposes itself to their orderly behavior and does not allow the events that happen between small numbers of atoms to enroll themselves accordingly to any recognizable law.

01:03:38.339 --> 01:03:53.935
The atoms of the table are, if you could get down to the atoms, are all vibrating uncontrollably to reflect the amount of energy of heat that they have on the Kelvin scale from absolute zero where they're no longer moving to something above absolute zero where they are moving.

01:03:54.816 --> 01:03:57.378
And that is an unstoppable force.

01:03:57.438 --> 01:04:02.982
That's one of the foundational attributes of matter.

01:04:03.743 --> 01:04:16.412
And because we know all atoms to perform all the time a completely disorderly heat motion which so to speak opposes itself to their orderly behavior and does not allow events that happen between small number of atoms to enroll themselves accordingly into any recognizable law.

01:04:16.632 --> 01:04:17.973
Only in cooperation

01:04:18.891 --> 01:04:32.695
With an enormously large number of atoms, do statistical laws begin to operate and control the behavior of these assemblies with an accuracy increasing as the number of atoms involved increases?

01:04:36.256 --> 01:04:42.138
And so only when you have enough of an element do the properties of that element start to emerge.

01:04:43.456 --> 01:04:48.038
The metallic surface and all this stuff depends on there being an extraordinary number of atoms.

01:04:48.939 --> 01:04:52.481
And individual atoms do not possess these qualities.

01:04:54.462 --> 01:05:02.566
And so physics is an understanding of a statistical representation of matter.

01:05:03.026 --> 01:05:12.051
And there are a couple wonderful experiments to illustrate this in your mind that I think will absolutely expand the way you think about life and the way you think about chemistry and physics.

01:05:12.887 --> 01:05:18.391
It is in this way, it is in that way that the events acquire truly orderly features.

01:05:18.451 --> 01:05:24.676
All the physical and chemical laws that are known to play an important part of life of organisms are of this statistical kind.

01:05:25.297 --> 01:05:35.184
Any other kind of lawfulness and orderliness that might one think of as being perpetually disturbed and made inoperative by the unceasing heat motion of the atoms.

01:05:36.245 --> 01:05:38.267
And this is true for proteins too, right?

01:05:39.027 --> 01:05:42.750
That's why when they show us these models of these proteins, they're all shaking around and stuff.

01:05:46.474 --> 01:05:54.576
So the precision is based on a large number of atoms intervening, and this is the first example so that you can understand how it is that we know this.

01:05:56.216 --> 01:06:13.501
Let me try to illustrate this by a few examples, picked somewhat at random out of thousands, and possibly not just the best ones to appeal to a reader who is learning for the first time about the condition of these things, a condition which modern physics and chemistry is as fundamental as, say, the fact that organisms are composed of cells in biology, or as

01:06:14.401 --> 01:06:19.503
Newton's Law and Astronomy, or even as a series of integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in Mathematics.

01:06:20.244 --> 01:06:35.431
An entire newcomer should not expect to obtain from the following few pages a full understanding and appreciation of the subject, which is associated with the illustrious names of Boltzmann and Gibbs and treated in textbooks under the name of Statistical Thermodynamics.

01:06:35.931 --> 01:06:39.213
But these two illustrations for the purpose of concept

01:06:39.833 --> 01:06:49.378
And for the purpose of getting your imagination to start to build the tool set that you need to understand these ideas, these ideas are smack on point.

01:06:50.419 --> 01:06:59.444
If you fill an oblong quartz tube with oxygen gas and put it into a magnetic field, you can find that the gas is magnetized.

01:07:01.205 --> 01:07:02.005
That's what this is here.

01:07:06.499 --> 01:07:12.042
The magnetization is due to the fact that the oxygen molecules are little magnets, and you know that.

01:07:13.143 --> 01:07:18.326
They can have, you know, dipoles, and they can actually be O2, so they can be

01:07:19.807 --> 01:07:31.817
covalently bonded and so then they definitely have a sort of orientation and they're sharing electrons so they could have a dipole moment and tend to orient themselves parallel to the field like a compass needle.

01:07:32.437 --> 01:07:39.503
But you must not think that they actually all turn parallel, for you double the field, you get double the magnetization in your oxygen body.

01:07:40.424 --> 01:07:48.551
And that proportionality goes on to extremely high field strengths, the magnetization increasing at a rate of the field you apply.

01:07:49.983 --> 01:07:55.347
This is a particularly clear example of a purely statistical law and phenomenon.

01:07:56.207 --> 01:08:03.772
The orientation of the field tends to produce is continually counteracted by the heat motion, which works for random orientation.

01:08:05.033 --> 01:08:08.316
The effect of this striving, striving,

01:08:09.218 --> 01:08:29.880
a word that is often used only to apply to life, but in this case is not, the striving for randomness versus the striving to be within the magnetic field and not opposing it, is actually only a small preference for acute over obtuse angles between the dipole axis and the field.

01:08:31.317 --> 01:08:53.526
Though the single atoms change their orientation incessantly, they produce on average, owing to their enormous number, a constant preponderance or percentage or proportion of the oxygen atoms, or in this case oxygen molecules, are in the orientation of the direction of the field or proportional to it.

01:08:54.926 --> 01:08:58.468
This ingenious explanation is due to French physicist Levin.

01:08:59.673 --> 01:09:01.394
And it can be checked in the following way.

01:09:01.434 --> 01:09:22.787
If you observed weak magnetization is really the outcome of rival tendencies, namely the magnetic field, which aims to combine all the molecules in parallel, and heat motion, which makes for random orientation, then it ought to be possible to increase the magnetization by weakening the heat motion, so by cooling the tube.

01:09:26.587 --> 01:09:36.716
And that is confirmed by experiment which gives the magnetization inversely proportional to the absolute temperature in quantitative agreement with the theory, which is actually Curie's law.

01:09:37.416 --> 01:09:54.111
Modern equipment even enables us by lowering the temperature to reduce the heat motion to such insignificance that the orientation tendency of the magnetic field can assert itself, if not completely, at least sufficiently to produce a substantial fraction of complete magnetization.

01:09:55.051 --> 01:10:09.463
And in this case, you no longer get the linear relationship, the proportional relationship between field strength and the field strength of the gas anymore at this extreme cold temperature approaching what is called saturation.

01:10:09.503 --> 01:10:13.546
This expectation is too quantitatively confirmed by the experiments.

01:10:15.424 --> 01:10:28.589
And so you see that this physical law and the magnetization, it's all an expression of statistical likelihood of any one of these countless molecules to be in an orientation.

01:10:28.609 --> 01:10:32.851
And then that average is just changing relative to the field strength.

01:10:34.892 --> 01:10:42.035
And so these are not really emergent properties so much as just the consequence of, again, so many

01:10:43.991 --> 01:10:53.559
atoms and the underlying truth that most of the significant number of the forces on these atoms are producing random motion.

01:10:55.220 --> 01:11:01.885
Notice that this behavior depends entirely on the large number of molecules which cooperate in producing the observable magnetization.

01:11:01.945 --> 01:11:07.310
Otherwise, the latter would not be constant at all, but would be fluctuating quite irregularly from one second to the next.

01:11:08.211 --> 01:11:14.392
Bear witness to the vicissitudes of the contest between heat motion and the field.

01:11:16.514 --> 01:11:18.635
Second example is Brownian motion.

01:11:18.695 --> 01:11:21.397
This is the kind of motion that you can even see under a microscope.

01:11:22.097 --> 01:11:38.146
If you fill the lower part of a closed glass vessel with fog consisting of minute droplets, you will find that the upper boundary of the fog gradually sinks with a well-defined velocity determined by the viscosity of the air and the size

01:11:39.491 --> 01:11:41.112
of the specific gravity of the droplets.

01:11:41.152 --> 01:11:54.783
But if you look at one of the droplets under a microscope, you find that it does not permanently sink with a constant velocity, but performs a very irregular movement, so-called Brownian movement, which corresponds to a regular sinking only on average.

01:11:54.863 --> 01:11:55.944
That's what that is there.

01:12:02.048 --> 01:12:14.477
Now, these droplets are not atoms, but they are sufficiently small and light not to be entirely imperceptible to the impact of a single molecule of those which hammer into their surface in perpetual impacts.

01:12:15.118 --> 01:12:19.181
They are thus knocked about and can only, on average, follow the influence of gravity.

01:12:19.221 --> 01:12:27.307
And in fact, their individual changes in motion, of course, are when random larger than average

01:12:29.861 --> 01:12:38.488
atoms are moving in kind of a cooperative way, and so then you get a movement in that direction, and then a movement in this direction, a movement in that direction, but most of the time you're not moving.

01:12:41.611 --> 01:12:43.392
Or some part of the time you're not moving.

01:12:43.933 --> 01:12:50.959
This example shows what funny and disorderly experience we should have if our sentences were perceptible to the impact of only a few molecules.

01:12:51.707 --> 01:12:56.008
There are bacteria and other organisms that are so small that they are strongly affected by this phenomenon.

01:12:56.028 --> 01:12:59.549
Their movements are determined by the thermic whims of the surrounding medium.

01:12:59.569 --> 01:13:00.330
They have no choice.

01:13:01.170 --> 01:13:10.473
If they had some locomotion of their own, they might nevertheless succeed in getting from one place to another, but with some difficulty, since the heat motion tosses them like a small boat in a rough sea.

01:13:11.273 --> 01:13:14.494
A phenomenon very much akin to Brownian motion is that of diffusion.

01:13:15.356 --> 01:13:33.159
Imagine a vessel filled with fluids, say water, and a small amount of some colored substances dissolves, say potassium permanganate, not in uniform concentration, but rather, as in figure four, where the dots indicate molecules of the dissolved substance and concentration diminishes from left to right.

01:13:38.143 --> 01:13:51.848
If you leave this system alone, a very slow process of diffusion sets in the permanganate spreading in the direction from left to right, that is, from places of higher concentration toward the place of lower concentration until it is equally distributed.

01:13:52.348 --> 01:14:00.711
The remarkable thing about this is it's rather simple and apparently not particularly interesting process that is in no way due, as one might think,

01:14:01.587 --> 01:14:08.136
to the tendency or force driving the permanganate molecules away from the crowded region into the less crowded one.

01:14:08.956 --> 01:14:12.897
like the population of a country spreading to those parts which has more elbow room.

01:14:13.037 --> 01:14:17.498
Nothing of the sort happens with our permanganate molecules.

01:14:17.638 --> 01:14:22.699
Each one of them behaves quite independently of all the others, which it very seldom meets.

01:14:23.400 --> 01:14:33.042
Every one of them, whether in a crowded region or an empty one, suffers the same fate of being continually knocked about by impacts of the water molecules and thereby gradually moving in

01:14:33.638 --> 01:14:41.603
moving on in an unpredictable direction, sometimes toward higher, sometimes toward lower concentrations, sometimes obliquely.

01:14:42.344 --> 01:14:54.652
The kind of motion it performs has often been compared with that of a blindfolded person on a large surface imbued with a certain desire of walking, but without any preference for any particular direction, and so changing his line continuously.

01:14:56.311 --> 01:15:08.019
that this random walk of the permanganate molecules, the same for all of them, should yet produce a regular flow towards a smaller concentration and ultimately make up the uniformity of distribution, is at first sight perplexing.

01:15:09.320 --> 01:15:10.361
But only at first sight.

01:15:11.262 --> 01:15:22.470
If you contemplate the figure four thin slices approximately constant concentration, the permanganate molecules, which in a given moment are constrained to a particular slice,

01:15:25.382 --> 01:15:33.295
A plane separating two neighboring slices will be crossed more by more molecules coming from the left than from the right.

01:15:33.435 --> 01:15:39.205
So what he's saying is that if we took this thing and we divided it vertically like this,

01:15:40.071 --> 01:15:43.592
than just because, let me see if I can get this thing.

01:15:44.113 --> 01:16:02.259
If we were to divide it vertically here and into slices like this, then because there, if we sliced it right here, there are more molecules on this side than on this side, then just by statistics, there will be less molecules going this way than are going this way, because there's more over here.

01:16:02.299 --> 01:16:06.921
And if they're all moving random, then more of them will randomly close this way, then they will go that way.

01:16:07.768 --> 01:16:17.136
And so what he's arguing is, is that just by random motion that you get this.

01:16:17.837 --> 01:16:18.638
That's where he is here.

01:16:19.619 --> 01:16:31.670
So, but precisely the consequence of this, a plane separating two neighboring slices will be crossed by more molecules coming from the left than from the opposite direction simply because the left there are more molecules engaged in a random walk than there are to the right.

01:16:32.478 --> 01:16:38.562
And as long as that is so, the balance will show up as a regular flow from left to right until a uniform distribution is reached.

01:16:39.342 --> 01:16:54.911
When these considerations are translated into mathematical language, the exact law of diffusion is reached in the form of a partial differential equation, which I shall not trouble the reader by explaining, though it is, meaning in ordinary language, is again simple enough.

01:16:55.051 --> 01:16:57.973
So this is the equation which describes this process.

01:16:58.882 --> 01:17:05.964
It's a differential equation, it needs calculus, but I mean, it's simple enough in terms of understanding what's happening there.

01:17:06.785 --> 01:17:16.128
The reason for mentioning the stern mathematical exact law here is to emphasize that its physical exactitude must nevertheless be challenged in every particular application.

01:17:16.908 --> 01:17:20.309
Being based on pure chance, its validity is only approximate.

01:17:21.314 --> 01:17:28.464
If it is, as a rule, a very good approximation, that is only due to the enormous number of molecules that cooperate in the phenomenon.

01:17:28.484 --> 01:17:37.618
The smaller their number, the larger the quite haphazard deviations we must expect, and they can be observed under favorable circumstances.

01:17:38.817 --> 01:17:44.641
The last example we shall give is closely akin to the second, but has particular interest.

01:17:44.721 --> 01:18:01.094
A light body suspended by long, thin fiber in equilibrium orientation is often used by physicists to measure weak forces which deflect it from a position of equilibrium, electric, magnetic, or gravitational forces being applied so as to twist it around its vertical axis.

01:18:02.631 --> 01:18:06.176
A light body must, of course, be chosen appropriately for the particular purpose.

01:18:06.316 --> 01:18:12.644
So again, this is just any random system, a light body suspended by a very, very, very, very, very tiny fiber.

01:18:13.959 --> 01:18:24.725
Continued effort to improve the accuracy of this very commonly used device, a torsional balance, has encountered a curious limit most interesting in itself.

01:18:25.686 --> 01:18:38.834
In choosing lighter and lighter bodies and thinner and longer fibers to make the balance susceptible to weaker and weaker forces, the limit was reached when the suspended body became noticeably susceptible to the impacts of heat motion

01:18:39.594 --> 01:18:50.120
of the surrounding molecules and began to perform an incessant regular dance about its equilibrium position, much like the trembling of the droplet in the second example.

01:18:51.060 --> 01:18:57.083
Though this behavior sets no absolute limit to the accuracy of measurements obtained with the balance, it sets a practical one.

01:18:57.643 --> 01:19:06.108
The uncontrollable effect of heat motion competes with the effect of the force to be measured and makes a single deflection observed insignificant.

01:19:08.797 --> 01:19:18.965
If you're trying to measure somebody's ability to blow out candles, but you're measuring that, you're trying to measure that in a thunderstorm, you're not going to get a very accurate measurement.

01:19:20.326 --> 01:19:24.829
And so you have to multiply the observations in order to eliminate the effect of Brownian motion.

01:19:26.391 --> 01:19:27.811
the movement of your instrument.

01:19:28.231 --> 01:19:37.333
This example is, I think, particularly illuminating in our present investigation, for our organs of sense, after all, are a kind of instrument.

01:19:38.093 --> 01:19:41.734
We can see how useless they would be if they became too sensitive.

01:19:44.375 --> 01:19:46.075
So much for examples for the present.

01:19:46.095 --> 01:19:55.717
I will merely add that there is not one law of physics or chemistry of those that are relevant within an organism or its interactions with its environment that I might not choose as an example.

01:19:56.553 --> 01:20:03.599
The detailed explanation might be more complicated, but the salient point would always be the same and thus the description would become monotonous.

01:20:04.220 --> 01:20:07.202
In other words, the point he's trying to make is scale.

01:20:08.203 --> 01:20:12.987
The difference between an angstrom and a meter is there for a reason.

01:20:14.031 --> 01:20:27.043
and that somewhere between that size scale difference is where these statistical properties emerge and physicists have started to make generalizations about how matter behaves.

01:20:28.144 --> 01:20:35.591
But only when we get to a certain statistical significance, a certain number of particles, do these laws emerge.

01:20:38.135 --> 01:20:47.418
But I should like to add one very important quantitative statement concerning the degree of inaccuracy to be expected in any physical law, the so-called square root of n law.

01:20:47.638 --> 01:20:50.820
And I will first illustrate it by a simple example and then generalize.

01:20:53.460 --> 01:21:05.885
If I tell you that a certain gas under a certain conditions of pressure and temperature has a certain density, and if I express this by saying that within a certain volume of a size relevant to some experiment, that there are under these conditions just n molecules of the gas,

01:21:06.886 --> 01:21:12.068
then you might be sure that if you could test my statement in a particular moment of time, you would find it inaccurate.

01:21:12.108 --> 01:21:22.212
The departure being of the order of the square root of n. Hence, if the number was 100, you would find an error of about 10 or 10%.

01:21:26.559 --> 01:21:34.304
If n was a million, he would likely find a departure of about 1,000, thus relative error of one-tenth of a percent.

01:21:34.364 --> 01:21:37.606
Now, roughly speaking, this statistical law is quite general.

01:21:37.646 --> 01:21:48.753
The laws of physics and chemistry are inaccurate within a probable relative error of the order of one over the square root of n, where n is the number of molecules that cooperate to bring about the law.

01:21:51.223 --> 01:21:58.932
to produce its validity within such regions of space or time that matters for some considerations and for a particular experiment.

01:21:59.012 --> 01:22:08.182
So again, you see from this again that an organism must have a comparatively gross structure in order to enjoy the benefit of fairly accurate laws.

01:22:08.903 --> 01:22:25.017
So in other words, an organism has to be a certain size difference from the size of an atom in order for the laws of how those atoms to behave to be sufficiently orderly enough to be of any benefit or of any foundation to a pattern integrity.

01:22:26.979 --> 01:22:29.861
For both its internal life and for its interplay with the external world.

01:22:30.061 --> 01:22:34.325
For otherwise, the number of cooperating particles would be too small, the law too inaccurate.

01:22:35.728 --> 01:22:52.695
The particularly exigent demand is the square root, for though a million is a reasonably large number, an accuracy of just one in a thousand is not overwhelmingly good, if a thing claims the dignity of being a law of nature.

01:22:55.285 --> 01:23:14.183
And so I hope that this is starting to spur some gears in your mind as a budding biologist to reorganize the way you think about the processes of life and where they are floating in relative to the laws of physics and chemistry.

01:23:14.203 --> 01:23:17.206
Because the laws of physics and chemistry exist at a certain

01:23:18.087 --> 01:23:34.924
threshold of statistical significance with the number of particles, and then it is several layers above that, orders of organization and size, where the emergent properties of pattern integrities that we call life emerge.

01:23:36.726 --> 01:23:38.668
And so it's not sufficient

01:23:40.370 --> 01:23:48.097
We don't have the way, as he said in the beginning, of the current understanding of physics and chemistry can't get us to be able to explain biology.

01:23:48.117 --> 01:23:48.758
It just can't.

01:23:50.159 --> 01:24:06.654
Because we're talking at, from a fundamental difference between periodic crystals and laws that emerge from, you know, just enough of these things versus biological phenomenon.

01:24:13.792 --> 01:24:24.715
And so this becomes, of course, very important when we talk about the hereditary mechanism, which is again, right, it's basically, it seems like it's chemical.

01:24:25.835 --> 01:24:38.298
Thus, we have come to the conclusion that an organism and all the biologically relevant processes that experiences must have an extremely many atomic structure and must be safeguarded against haphazard single atomic events attaining too much great importance.

01:24:39.474 --> 01:24:53.085
That, the naive physicist tells us, is essential so that the organism may, so to speak, have sufficiently accurate physical laws on which to draw for setting up its marvelously regular and well-ordered working.

01:24:53.766 --> 01:25:01.572
How do these conclusions reached, biologically speaking, a priori, fit with the actual biological facts?

01:25:03.283 --> 01:25:06.924
At first sight, one is inclined to think that the conclusions are little more than trivial.

01:25:07.564 --> 01:25:26.028
A biologist of say 30 years ago might have said that although it was quite suitable for a popular lecture to emphasize the importance in the organism as elsewhere of statistical physics, the point was in fact rather a rather familiar truism for naturally not only the body of an adult individual of any higher species but every single cell composing it.

01:25:27.290 --> 01:25:51.528
contains a cosmic number of single atoms of every kind and every particular physiological process that we observe either within a cell or within its interactions with the environment appears or appeared 30 years ago to involve such enormous numbers of atoms and single atomic processes that all the relevant laws of physics and physical chemistry would be safeguarded even under the very enacting demands of statistical physics

01:25:52.088 --> 01:25:58.332
with respect to large numbers, this demand I illustrated just now by the square root of n rule.

01:25:58.773 --> 01:26:17.485
Today we know that this opinion would have been a mistake, as we shall presently see incredibly small groups of atoms, much too small to display exact statistical laws, do play a dominant role in the very orderly and lawful events within an organism.

01:26:18.390 --> 01:26:25.912
They have control of the observable large-scale features which the organism acquires in the course of its development.

01:26:25.932 --> 01:26:28.493
They determine important characteristics of its function.

01:26:29.213 --> 01:26:33.955
And all this very sharp, very distinct biological laws are displayed.

01:26:34.895 --> 01:26:42.918
And this is a physicist from a couple decades ago who simply doesn't see what we can now see.

01:26:44.638 --> 01:26:46.939
And so I'm going to read that one more time, and then maybe

01:26:48.046 --> 01:26:49.127
Let me just look forward.

01:26:49.167 --> 01:26:50.067
Where did I go here?

01:26:51.568 --> 01:26:57.192
Yeah, I'm going to go through this little bit and then I'm going to wrap it up with that video.

01:26:59.153 --> 01:27:04.297
Today, as we know, this opinion would have been a mistake, as we shall presently see incredibly small groups of atoms

01:27:05.146 --> 01:27:12.731
much too small to play exact statistical laws and do play a dominating role in the very orderly and lawful events within an organism.

01:27:12.751 --> 01:27:14.732
They have control of the observable scales.

01:27:15.153 --> 01:27:17.394
So he's talking about genetic inheritance and DNA.

01:27:17.414 --> 01:27:21.597
I must begin by giving a brief summary of the situation in biology, more especially genetics.

01:27:22.097 --> 01:27:26.200
In other words, I have to summarize the present state of knowledge in a subject in which I'm not a master.

01:27:27.981 --> 01:27:34.607
This cannot be helped, and I apologize particularly to any biologist apology accepted for the dilettante character of my summary.

01:27:34.667 --> 01:27:39.571
On the other hand, I beg leave to put the prevailing ideas before you more or less dogmatically.

01:27:39.632 --> 01:27:52.623
A poor theoretical physicist could not be expected to produce anything like a competent survey of the experimental evidence, which consists of a large number of long and beautifully interwoven series of breeding experiments of truly unprecedented ingenuity, on the other hand, and of

01:27:53.724 --> 01:27:58.687
direct observations of the living cell conducted with all refinement of modern microscopy on the other.

01:27:59.908 --> 01:28:02.150
So there's two big problems with this.

01:28:02.210 --> 01:28:09.694
The first one is, and I'm just gonna say it very briefly, we can do another show about this or another class about this, but Mendel is basically a lie.

01:28:10.915 --> 01:28:12.196
And why is Mendel a lie?

01:28:12.236 --> 01:28:19.361
Because Mendel did not take pea plants with particular

01:28:20.771 --> 01:28:27.516
traits and then breed them to show us what dominance and recessive inheritance was.

01:28:28.636 --> 01:28:47.169
That's an incomplete description of what Mendel did because first what Mendel did was breed pea plants together until he had pea plants that produced exclusively the same traits in their offspring for generations.

01:28:48.618 --> 01:29:09.743
And then starting with those inbred selected strains with wrinkly seeds or smooth seeds, he then interbred those already artificially pure lines together to get the indication of dominant and recessive genes.

01:29:10.788 --> 01:29:23.475
It was already based on pre-selected, pre-interbred, not naturally pure, but artificially pure strains that he had himself created over years.

01:29:28.998 --> 01:29:31.460
And so Erwin Schrodinger himself is

01:29:32.836 --> 01:29:47.811
is inadequately read into what Mendel did and has read the poor assumption or the poor summary of Mendel's work that has taken root in Biology 101 all the way back then.

01:29:51.275 --> 01:29:53.237
And so let me use the word pattern.

01:29:55.177 --> 01:30:03.343
Let me use the word pattern of an organism in the sense which the biologist calls it the four-dimensional pattern.

01:30:03.383 --> 01:30:05.284
It's a pattern across time.

01:30:07.566 --> 01:30:11.308
That's what your dog is from a puppy until the time you bury her.

01:30:11.749 --> 01:30:17.353
It is a pattern integrity that stays integral over time.

01:30:20.875 --> 01:30:23.657
So I will definitely let you use the word pattern.

01:30:28.720 --> 01:30:42.335
Meaning not only the structure and functioning of that organism in the adult or any other particular stage, but of its whole ontogenic development from fertilized egg cell to the stage of maturity when the organism begins to reproduce itself.

01:30:42.795 --> 01:30:49.603
Now this whole four-dimensional pattern integrity is known to be determined by the structure of that one cell, the fertilized egg.

01:30:51.010 --> 01:30:56.875
Moreover, we know that it is essentially determined by the structure of only a small part of that cell, its nucleus.

01:30:56.915 --> 01:31:04.160
This nucleus in the ordinary resting state of the cell usually appears to be a network of chromatin distributed over the cell.

01:31:04.200 --> 01:31:16.470
The interesting thing is, I don't know if you're aware of this or not, but you can't take the DNA of any one of your cells and then put it into a generic cell and make you again.

01:31:18.812 --> 01:31:19.192
You can't.

01:31:21.656 --> 01:31:22.176
doesn't work.

01:31:22.296 --> 01:31:24.598
And I'm pretty sure you can't put it in an egg cell either.

01:31:25.598 --> 01:31:36.264
You can artificially take the nucleus out of one, put it in another, but you can't put just the DNA.

01:31:36.444 --> 01:31:38.806
We don't have the way of just putting the DNA in there.

01:31:40.767 --> 01:31:47.971
We don't even know what we've really removed from something when we move the contents of the nucleus from one place or another, but we have already been told

01:31:48.632 --> 01:31:51.493
that we have moved the DNA from one place to another.

01:31:51.513 --> 01:31:56.995
The DNA, nothing else, but the DNA carries this from one place to another.

01:31:57.035 --> 01:32:06.278
And already this physicist and the data and the observations upon which he's basing this model, of course, are already biased and already off.

01:32:08.442 --> 01:32:25.665
But they are biased and off in the way that gets us to this biology 101, where again, we're trying, he's trying to justify that there's no reason to think that eventually we won't be able to explain all that we see in the pattern integrities of life by the physical laws of physics and chemistry.

01:32:25.705 --> 01:32:27.526
There's no reason to doubt that.

01:32:28.386 --> 01:32:30.246
That's the fundamental message here.

01:32:30.686 --> 01:32:34.427
And that's why he describes this in this way.

01:32:35.643 --> 01:32:51.358
This nucleus in the ordinary resting state of the cell usually appears as a network of chromatin distributed over the cell, but in the vitally important processes of cell division, mitosis, and meiosis, it is seen to consist of a set of particles, usually fiber-shaped or rod-like, called the chromosomes, which number in 8 or 12 or in man 48.

01:32:54.514 --> 01:33:00.959
But I really ought to have written these illustrative numbers as 2 times 4, 4 times 6, or 2 times 24.

01:33:01.500 --> 01:33:06.904
And I ought to have spoken of two sets in order to use the expression in the customary meaning of the biologist.

01:33:07.525 --> 01:33:13.830
For those single chromosomes are sometimes clearly distinguished and individualized by size and shape, the two sets are almost entirely alike.

01:33:15.211 --> 01:33:20.135
As I shall see in a moment, one set comes from the mother, the other set from the father.

01:33:21.331 --> 01:33:34.383
It is these chromosomes or probably only an axial skeleton fiber of what we actually see under the microscope as a chromosome that contains some kind of code script for the entire pattern of the individual's future development of its functioning in a mature state.

01:33:37.685 --> 01:33:40.468
Every complete set of chromosomes contains the full code.

01:33:41.229 --> 01:33:42.390
This is, I don't think, correct.

01:33:43.391 --> 01:33:48.573
So there are, as a rule, two copies of the latter in the fertilized egg, which forms the earliest stage of the future individual.

01:33:49.034 --> 01:34:10.644
In calling the structure of the chromosome fibers a code script, we mean that the all-penetrating mind, once conceived by Laplace, to which every causal connection lay immediately open, could tell from their structure whether the egg would develop, under suitable conditions, into a black cock, or into a speckled hen, into a fly, or a maize plant, a rhododendron, a beetle, a mouse, or a woman.

01:34:11.738 --> 01:34:21.041
In other words, if we had an all-penetrating mind, an AI, a giant computer, an all-knowing machine, whatever, that we could feed the DNA into it and the DNA could be read.

01:34:21.061 --> 01:34:26.603
That's what he's saying here.

01:34:28.083 --> 01:34:35.606
To which we may add that the appearance of egg cells are often remarkably similar, but whatever's in the egg doesn't apparently matter, right?

01:34:35.666 --> 01:34:36.346
They don't care.

01:34:37.227 --> 01:34:51.088
They don't want to think about what tiny, indetectable, undetectable, as yet unmeasured components of the egg might be vital to the orchestration of the construction of a new pattern integrity.

01:34:55.441 --> 01:35:12.032
To which we might add that the similar appearances of the eggs, and even that when they are not, as in the case of comparatively gigantic eggs of reptiles and birds, the difference is not so much in the relevant structures as in the nutritive material, which in these cases is added for obvious reasons.

01:35:12.612 --> 01:35:15.614
But the term code script, of course, is too narrow.

01:35:15.654 --> 01:35:20.358
The chromosome structures are at the same time instrumental in bringing about the development they foreshadow.

01:35:21.158 --> 01:35:23.559
They are law, code, and executive power.

01:35:23.679 --> 01:35:30.281
Or to use another simile, they are an architect's plan and the builder's craft all in one.

01:35:32.802 --> 01:35:33.982
I just thought it was the plan.

01:35:34.002 --> 01:35:36.123
I mean, isn't that what the Human Genome Project told us?

01:35:36.183 --> 01:35:36.923
It's just the plan.

01:35:36.983 --> 01:35:38.123
It's just all the proteins.

01:35:39.183 --> 01:35:42.524
The lady from Moderna told us that we are just proteins.

01:35:43.345 --> 01:35:44.245
100 trillion proteins.

01:35:45.273 --> 01:35:51.732
And so we're just DNA, the codes for proteins, and then we just have to translate those proteins in the right order, and then here we are.

01:35:57.239 --> 01:35:59.982
So, how do chromosomes behave in ontogenesis?

01:36:00.102 --> 01:36:03.184
Ontogenesis being the development from single cell to multi-cell.

01:36:03.745 --> 01:36:06.668
The growth of an organism is affected by consecutive cell division.

01:36:06.708 --> 01:36:08.690
Such a cell division is called mitosis.

01:36:08.730 --> 01:36:17.438
It is, in fact, the life of a cell, not such a frequent event as one might expect, considering the enormous number of cells which our body is composed.

01:36:18.138 --> 01:36:19.479
In the beginning, growth is rapid.

01:36:19.499 --> 01:36:25.443
The egg divides into two daughter cells, which at the next step will produce a generation of four, then eight, 16, 32, 64, etc.

01:36:26.003 --> 01:36:32.147
The frequency of division will not remain exactly the same in all parts of the growing body, and that will break the regularity of these numbers.

01:36:32.227 --> 01:36:47.418
But from their rapid increase, we can infer by an easy computation that on average, as few as 50 or 60 successive divisions suffice to produce the number of cells in a grown man, or say, 10 times the number taking into account the exchange of cells during a lifetime.

01:36:48.559 --> 01:36:58.575
Hey body, cell of mine, on average only the 50th or 60th descendant of the egg that was I. I don't know how accurate that is, but it's an interesting thought experiment.

01:37:00.290 --> 01:37:02.270
In mitosis, every chromosome is duplicated.

01:37:02.310 --> 01:37:04.171
How do chromosomes behave in mitosis?

01:37:04.211 --> 01:37:04.911
They duplicate.

01:37:05.171 --> 01:37:07.811
Both sets, both copies of the code duplicate.

01:37:07.831 --> 01:37:15.113
The process has been extensively studied under the microscope and is of paramount interest, but too involved to describe here in detail.

01:37:15.613 --> 01:37:23.914
The salient points is that each of the two daughter cells gets a dowry of two further complete sets of chromosomes exactly similar to those of the parent cells.

01:37:23.954 --> 01:37:28.395
So all the body cells are exactly alike as regards to their chromosomal treasure.

01:37:29.275 --> 01:37:37.193
however little we understand the device we cannot think however little we understand the device we cannot

01:37:38.231 --> 01:37:49.193
I think that it must be in some way very relevant to the functioning of the organism that every single cell, even a less important one, should be in possession of a complete double copy of the code script.

01:37:49.853 --> 01:37:59.055
So this is one of the arguments about the genetics, the genetic of DNA being the genetic code is that it's in every cell of your body.

01:37:59.595 --> 01:38:07.236
Some time ago, we were told in the newspapers that in his African campaign, General Montgomery made a point of having every single soldier's army

01:38:07.836 --> 01:38:10.097
meticulously informed of all of his designs.

01:38:10.177 --> 01:38:20.760
If that is true, as it conceivably might be, considering the high intelligence and reliability of his troops, it provides an excellent analogy to our case, in which the corresponding fact certainly is literally true.

01:38:23.040 --> 01:38:28.202
The most surprising fact is the doubleness of the chromosome set maintained throughout the mitotic division.

01:38:28.242 --> 01:38:35.704
That is, the outstanding feature of the genetic mechanism is most strikingly revealed by the one and only departure from this rule, which we now have to discuss.

01:38:39.093 --> 01:38:42.774
Keep in mind, this is all just basically Biology 101 and talking about the genome.

01:38:43.634 --> 01:38:46.535
So I'm just using his book as Biology 101 instead of Campbell.

01:38:48.736 --> 01:38:56.118
Very soon, the link to the PDF is...

01:38:59.309 --> 01:39:05.936
Here, you can find the PDF at GingholmBiological.com slash stuff.

01:39:06.117 --> 01:39:13.565
And if you can't type that in, you go down to at GingholmBiological.com and scroll all the way to the bottom, and you'll see a little thing at the bottom that says stuff.

01:39:13.605 --> 01:39:16.488
And then you can click there and get that.

01:39:17.609 --> 01:39:18.831
That should have been this one.

01:39:19.872 --> 01:39:20.032
Yes.

01:39:24.470 --> 01:39:35.455
So, very soon after development, the individual is set in a group of cells as reserved for reducing a later stage in the so-called gametes, the sperm cells of the egg cells, as the case may be, needed for reproduction of the individual in maturity.

01:39:35.515 --> 01:39:42.238
Reserved means that they do not serve any other purposes in the meantime and suffer many fewer mitotic divisions.

01:39:44.127 --> 01:39:51.614
The exceptional or reductive division called meiosis is the one by which eventually on maturity the gametes are produced from these reserved cells.

01:39:53.416 --> 01:40:00.221
As a rule, only a short time before synagamy is to take place, so when they're supposed to combine again.

01:40:00.341 --> 01:40:08.988
In meiosis, the double chromosome set of the parent cell simply separates into two single sets, one of which goes to each of the two daughter cells, the gametes.

01:40:09.048 --> 01:40:13.692
In other words, the mitotic doubling of the chromosome does not take place in meiosis.

01:40:14.372 --> 01:40:21.258
The number remains constant, and thus every gamete receives only half, that is, only one copy of the code, not two.

01:40:22.915 --> 01:40:26.196
The cells with only one chromosome set are called haploid.

01:40:27.136 --> 01:40:28.737
Thus, the gametes are haploid.

01:40:28.817 --> 01:40:31.018
Ordinary body cells are diploid.

01:40:31.758 --> 01:40:38.520
Individuals with three, four, or generally speaking with many chromosome sets in all their body cells occur occasionally.

01:40:38.580 --> 01:40:41.581
The latter are then called triploid or tetraploid, polyploidy.

01:40:43.479 --> 01:40:50.500
In the act of syngamy, the male gamete and the female gamete, both haploid cells, coalesce to form a fertilized egg cell.

01:40:50.540 --> 01:40:59.982
Though not indispensable for our purposes, it is a real interest since it shows actually a fairly complete code script of the pattern is contained in every set of chromosomes.

01:41:00.722 --> 01:41:05.223
There are instances of meiosis not followed shortly by fertilization.

01:41:05.243 --> 01:41:12.324
A haploid cell undergoing numerous mitotic cell division results in building up of a complete haploid individual.

01:41:13.174 --> 01:41:20.758
This is the case in the male bee, the drone, which is produced by parenthenogenesis genetically.

01:41:21.958 --> 01:41:26.160
That is from non-fertilized and therefore haploid eggs of the queen.

01:41:26.220 --> 01:41:27.501
The drone has no father.

01:41:28.021 --> 01:41:29.522
All of its body cells are haploid.

01:41:29.722 --> 01:41:33.264
If you please, you may call it a grossly exaggerated spermatozoon.

01:41:34.523 --> 01:41:39.548
And actually, as everybody knows, to function as such happens to be its one and only task in life.

01:41:39.588 --> 01:41:45.774
However, that is perhaps a ludicrous point of view, for the case is not quite unique.

01:41:46.555 --> 01:41:58.287
There are families of plants in which the haploid gamete is produced by meiosis and is called a spore, in which case falls to the ground and, like a seed, develops into a true haploid plant comparable in size with the diploid plant.

01:41:59.192 --> 01:42:02.376
Figure 5 is a rough sketch of moss, well known in our forest.

01:42:02.416 --> 01:42:06.682
The leafy lower part is the haploid plant called the gametophyte.

01:42:07.779 --> 01:42:19.247
because its upper end develops sex organs and gametes by which mutual fertilization produce in the ordinary way the diploid plant, the bare stem with the capsule at the top.

01:42:19.887 --> 01:42:24.290
This is called the sporophyte because it produces by meiosis the spores at the capsule at the top.

01:42:24.810 --> 01:42:30.034
When the capsule opens, the spores fall to the ground and develop into a leafy stem, etc.

01:42:30.074 --> 01:42:32.756
The course of events is approximately called

01:42:33.519 --> 01:42:36.201
appropriately called the alternation of generations.

01:42:36.241 --> 01:42:47.149
This is what makes a lot of plants so very interesting and of course you can have diploidy and quadriploidy in plants too, so then you have multiple generations there.

01:42:47.189 --> 01:42:56.375
You may, if you choose, look upon the ordinary case man and animals in the same way, but the gametophyte is then, as a rule, a very short-lived unicellular generation.

01:42:57.036 --> 01:43:02.560
Spermatozoa or egg cell, as the case may be, our body conforms to that of the sporophyte.

01:43:03.300 --> 01:43:08.634
Our spores are the reserve cells from which this meiosis, the unicellular generation, springs.

01:43:10.218 --> 01:43:11.481
It's an interesting idea, right?

01:43:13.516 --> 01:43:21.721
So the outstanding relevance of reductive division and the important, really fateful process of reproduction of the individuals, not fertilization, but meiosis.

01:43:21.941 --> 01:43:24.522
One set of chromosomes is from the father, the other from the mother.

01:43:25.223 --> 01:43:27.364
Neither chance nor destiny can interfere that.

01:43:27.484 --> 01:43:31.526
Every man owes just half of his inheritance to his mother and half to his father.

01:43:32.227 --> 01:43:35.729
That one or the other strain seems to come

01:43:37.850 --> 01:43:44.093
Sorry, that one or the other strain seems often to prevail is due to other reasons, which we shall come to later.

01:43:45.373 --> 01:43:49.375
But when you trace the origin of your inheritance back to your grandparents, the case is different.

01:43:49.395 --> 01:43:55.618
Let me fix attention on my parental set of chromosomes, in particular on one of them, say number five.

01:43:57.459 --> 01:44:04.302
It is a faithful replica of either number five of my father received from his father or of the number five he received from his mother.

01:44:05.458 --> 01:44:16.148
The issue was decided by a 50-50 chance in meiosis taking place in my father's body in November of 1886 and producing the spermatozoa, which a few days later was to be effective at begetting me.

01:44:17.105 --> 01:44:27.110
exactly the same story could be repeated about chromosomes, my maternal set, and mutatis mutandis about every one of my maternal chromosomes.

01:44:27.730 --> 01:44:42.778
Moreover, all of the 48 issues are entirely independent, even if it were known that my parental chromosome number 5 came from my grandfather, Joseph Schrodinger, number 7 still chanced an equal chance of being also from him or from his wife, Marie.

01:44:45.046 --> 01:44:47.268
crossing over, location of properties.

01:44:47.549 --> 01:45:04.106
But, pure chance has been given even wider range in mixing the grandparental inheritance and offspring that would appear from the preceding description in which has been tacitly assumed or even explicitly stated that a particular chromosome as a whole was either from a grandfather or grandmother.

01:45:04.907 --> 01:45:08.108
In other words, that a single chromosomes are passed on undivided.

01:45:08.148 --> 01:45:10.649
The actual fact is that they are not, or not always.

01:45:11.429 --> 01:45:28.093
Before being separated in reductive division, one, say the one from the father's body, any two homologous chromosomes, the five from mom and dad, grandma and grandpa, come in close contact with each other, during which they sometimes exchange entire portions.

01:45:29.134 --> 01:45:30.474
This is called crossing over.

01:45:32.148 --> 01:45:42.112
Two properties situated on the prospective parts of that chromosome will be separated in the grandchild who will follow the grandfather in one of them and the grandmother in the other.

01:45:42.192 --> 01:45:51.276
And the act of crossing over being neither very rare nor very frequent has provided us with invaluable information regarding the location of certain properties on chromosomes.

01:45:52.657 --> 01:46:03.303
Full account we should have drawn on conceptions not introduced before the next chapter, but as that would take us beyond the range of this little book, let me indicate the salient points right away.

01:46:03.883 --> 01:46:09.386
If there were no crossing over, two properties for which the same chromosome was responsible would always be passed on together.

01:46:10.026 --> 01:46:12.988
No descendant receiving one of them without receiving the other as well.

01:46:13.548 --> 01:46:20.072
But two properties due to different chromosomes would either stand a 50-50 chance of being separated or would be invariably separated.

01:46:20.802 --> 01:46:30.488
being separated or would be invariably be separated, the latter when they are situated in homologous chromosomes of the same ancestor which never go together.

01:46:33.650 --> 01:46:46.318
These rules and chances are interfered with by crossing over, hence the probability of this event can be ascertained by registering carefully the percentage of composition of offspring in extended breeding experiments suitably laid out for the purpose.

01:46:47.335 --> 01:46:54.041
And so if we create an experimental system where we can track these traits, then we can see that crossing over occurs.

01:46:54.441 --> 01:47:05.050
And more importantly, we can see that the crossing over is less likely to occur the closer that these traits are on the chromosome, if they are

01:47:05.868 --> 01:47:10.651
near each other, then the odds of them being separated by crossing over is lower.

01:47:10.911 --> 01:47:15.654
And in breeding experiments, we can seem to see this process.

01:47:15.674 --> 01:47:22.458
So again, if we have enough numbers, we have enough examples, we can start to see laws emerge.

01:47:23.239 --> 01:47:28.642
But those laws don't necessarily apply to individual plants and individual breeding events.

01:47:29.670 --> 01:47:40.679
They only are available to us to characterize in that approximation when we breed enough plants with enough traits in enough way in enough uniform fashion for those laws to emerge.

01:47:41.159 --> 01:47:57.252
The question is, did people like Mendel or any of these other people sufficiently homogenize a genetic signal so that it no longer exhibited the signals and the attributes that they have when they are not so homogenized?

01:47:58.660 --> 01:48:00.921
And so now I'm getting kind of inaccurate.

01:48:00.941 --> 01:48:03.602
And if you're not following or you're coming in in the middle, it's going to be hard.

01:48:04.603 --> 01:48:06.204
But hopefully you're still following along.

01:48:06.844 --> 01:48:08.565
I feel this is really great for me too.

01:48:09.145 --> 01:48:21.651
In analyzing the statistics, one accepts the suggestive working hypothesis that the linkage between two properties situated on the same chromosome is less frequently broken by crossing over the nearer they are.

01:48:22.810 --> 01:48:33.416
for there is less chance of the point of exchange lying between them, whereas the properties located near the opposite ends of the chromosome are separated by crossing over.

01:48:35.617 --> 01:48:39.439
And much the same applies, recombination properties, homologous chromosome, the same.

01:48:39.839 --> 01:48:46.203
In this way, we may expect from the statistics of linkage, a sort of map of properties in every chromosome.

01:48:46.223 --> 01:48:48.264
And that's what we've done with flies, for example.

01:48:49.616 --> 01:48:55.746
They've used flies and breeding lots and lots of flies to find linkage maps.

01:48:57.642 --> 01:49:04.446
which can tell them and give them landmarks on the chromosome that can be associated with certain traits.

01:49:05.086 --> 01:49:20.836
And again, this is only possible with inbred, well understood fly lines with eye color and legs and this kind of thing that can be tracked and then pure genetic varieties of those interbred to follow the linkage map.

01:49:21.676 --> 01:49:29.138
Not saying that these experiments aren't good and haven't lended some understanding, but you need to see them in the context for which they are.

01:49:29.198 --> 01:49:34.459
They need to have the numbers of experiments in order for the law to be visible.

01:49:35.119 --> 01:49:45.781
But that law and the phenomenon in and of itself is not really an overwhelming process at the individual event level anymore.

01:49:46.408 --> 01:49:54.932
than at the individual time that you're watching the thing moving around, that that's not contributing to its sinking, you see?

01:49:57.693 --> 01:50:11.280
So with any group of linear map properties can be drawn upon which quantitative degree for the linkage about any two groups so that there is little doubt that they are actually located and located along a line as the rod-shaped chromosome suggests.

01:50:12.222 --> 01:50:20.166
Of course, the scheme of hereditary mechanism as drawn up here is still rather empty and colorless, even slightly naive, for we have not said what exactly understand a property.

01:50:21.447 --> 01:50:32.232
It seems neither adequate nor possible to dissect into discrete properties the pattern of a whole individual, which is essentially a unity, a whole, like the tapestry.

01:50:33.453 --> 01:50:37.135
It's kind of hard to explain the tapestry in the context of a few knots.

01:50:39.272 --> 01:50:53.998
Now that we are actually a state in any particular case is that a pair of ancestors were a certain, in a certain well-defined respect, and that that offspring follows in this respect, either one or the other, what we locate in the chromosome is the seed of this difference.

01:50:54.038 --> 01:51:00.841
We call it in technical language, a locus, or if we think of the hypothetical material structure underlying it, a gene.

01:51:02.964 --> 01:51:06.645
And so in other words, if they've sequenced you, they haven't really sequenced you.

01:51:06.685 --> 01:51:21.470
They've identified these things, either through a linkage analysis and a corresponding restriction enzyme map, that there are certain attributes of the organism that seem to correlate with the presence of this particular part of a chromosome.

01:51:22.391 --> 01:51:32.334
Not a sequence, not a set of amino acids that has been read and can be identified by the words, here lies the gene for eye color.

01:51:34.417 --> 01:51:40.220
But it is really a region of a crystal or a molecule or something.

01:51:41.460 --> 01:51:42.020
And that's it.

01:51:44.942 --> 01:51:54.166
And the difference is properties are actually discrete and will emerge in the next chapter when we have to speak of mutations in the dry scheme here that you've presented will, as I hope, acquire more life and color.

01:51:55.711 --> 01:52:01.636
We have just introduced the term gene for the hypothetical material carrier of a definite hereditary feature.

01:52:01.656 --> 01:52:04.918
We must now stress two points will be highly relevant to our investigation.

01:52:04.938 --> 01:52:08.561
The first is size or better the maximum size of such a carrier.

01:52:08.581 --> 01:52:12.464
In other words, how small a volume can we trace to the location?

01:52:15.706 --> 01:52:21.811
The second point will be the permanence of a gene to be inferred from the durability of the hereditary pattern.

01:52:23.769 --> 01:52:25.771
And so I think this is a good place to stop.

01:52:26.412 --> 01:52:28.214
This would be a protein.

01:52:31.478 --> 01:52:35.122
According to the people at Moderna, all the genes are proteins.

01:52:36.864 --> 01:52:38.145
We don't know any other genes.

01:52:38.185 --> 01:52:39.447
Genes code for proteins.

01:52:39.487 --> 01:52:40.528
We're made of proteins.

01:52:42.625 --> 01:52:46.387
And so all the other aspects that are encoded, right?

01:52:46.487 --> 01:52:58.334
Not just the architecture, not just the map of the building, but how the building is going to be built are also encoded in these chromosomes, also encoded in this DNA.

01:52:58.914 --> 01:53:09.000
But for everybody that works at the Human Genome Project, for everybody that's working for a genetic cause of autism, for everybody that's working for a genetic cause of all of these things,

01:53:10.498 --> 01:53:23.524
a genetic cause of a hereditary feature, they're looking for a protein and a point mutation in the protein because those are the easiest examples to sell nature papers on.

01:53:24.045 --> 01:53:28.907
Those are the easiest examples to sell a potential genetic cure for.

01:53:32.109 --> 01:53:38.312
But they in no way, shape, or form lend useful understanding how, as a whole,

01:53:40.168 --> 01:53:43.250
these pattern integrities are functioning across spacetime.

01:53:43.810 --> 01:53:54.677
Four-dimensional pattern is never going to be understood, no matter how many nanopore sequencers and how much better they get at it.

01:53:55.717 --> 01:54:06.884
No matter how cheap it gets to sequence these sequences, it's never going to allow us to understand how the tapestry as a whole is built,

01:54:08.174 --> 01:54:10.496
and how it is maintained and changes over time.

01:54:13.458 --> 01:54:18.643
And so we have been given this false sense of security by our biology 101 books.

01:54:20.945 --> 01:54:21.205
Whoops.

01:54:23.672 --> 01:54:39.936
where we're supposed to think that because we understand it down here at this level of genetics and genes and cells and we have all this technology and we can show you all these cartoons and tell you all these complicated parts that somehow we understand how the watch works.

01:54:42.356 --> 01:54:42.977
But we don't.

01:54:44.137 --> 01:54:51.699
We barely understand what parts are encoded here, never mind how the building is encoded.

01:54:51.739 --> 01:54:53.239
We don't know how that's done at all.

01:54:54.212 --> 01:55:22.041
And that is perhaps the other big message from this lecture is that not only are the emergent properties of physics and chemistry dependent on a certain threshold number of atoms, but the emergent properties of the four-dimensional patterns, the pattern integrities as Buckminster Fuller would call them, of pattern integrities that we call life are also dependent on being

01:55:23.928 --> 01:55:50.693
a certain existence distance away from, in size scale, these phenomenons so that they can be counted on as a regular set of physical laws upon which these pattern integrities can base their function and base their flourishing and extend their existence across space-time.

01:55:53.208 --> 01:56:19.840
And so my feeling here is that although this is a physicist attempting to rally biologists not to give up on the idea that chemistry and physics will eventually be able to explain everything, I think that these exact same words and these exact same beautiful thoughts can be used to worship the creator and to appreciate

01:56:21.127 --> 01:56:27.149
the absolute irreducible complexity of the sacred biology around us and see it for what it is.

01:56:28.530 --> 01:56:46.976
And then approach it with this humility that will allow us to probe it without insulting the Creator and probe it without encroaching on the intentions of the Creator, even though we can't possibly understand what those intentions are.

01:56:47.036 --> 01:56:49.357
We can only hope and pray that they will be revealed.

01:56:52.563 --> 01:57:04.766
It is the irreverent pursuit of the foundational understanding that he says we can eventually get to with physics and chemistry that is insulting to creation.

01:57:04.826 --> 01:57:14.229
That is, I think, essentially, it is irreverent to creation by assuming that.

01:57:15.069 --> 01:57:29.848
He doesn't mean it that way, he doesn't say it that way, he might not even hear it that way because he may have read a lot of these books too and think that he's contributing to the idea of man and his future and you know getting everybody around to the idea that we got to take control of our evolution.

01:57:30.529 --> 01:57:33.113
I have no doubt that he's thinking in this same way as well.

01:57:34.550 --> 01:57:43.238
So again, if you don't mind or you need to, don't forget that you can download the stuff that we're talking about and going to continue to talk about here.

01:57:43.979 --> 01:57:47.842
You can download Understanding Living Systems and you can start reading that book.

01:57:47.882 --> 01:58:00.754
Tomorrow, I guess, we'll watch a video with Dennis and listen to his take on biology and on genetics because I think that's a good introduction and make sure I'm humble enough to say that these aren't all my ideas.

01:58:01.935 --> 01:58:11.705
an attempt at synthesizing this book with this book and with this book and with this book right here and with this book.

01:58:12.606 --> 01:58:15.989
I really think that we are going to be the first

01:58:17.254 --> 01:58:30.933
Biology 101 class to really start at the philosophical right place so that you can approach with a humility and a grasp of what the irreducible complexity is and

01:58:32.154 --> 01:58:41.201
And also a reasonable grasp, I think, on conceptually what physics and chemistry really are was already what this lecture really was.

01:58:41.241 --> 01:58:42.342
I think it was a really good one.

01:58:42.943 --> 01:58:45.445
Even if it was a little broken up, it was a good exercise for me.

01:58:45.465 --> 01:58:47.807
And again, this is the first iteration of this course.

01:58:48.327 --> 01:58:54.332
The next time we start out at day one again, this course is going to be so incredible.

01:58:55.813 --> 01:58:57.354
I'm sure I can charge for it.

01:58:58.515 --> 01:59:00.857
Ladies and gentlemen, I won't, but I'm sure I could.

01:59:02.659 --> 01:59:25.290
These people have been leading us astray by agreeing, creating illusion of consensus about details that don't matter, about questions that don't matter, about mysteries that don't need solving, all because they wanted to seed a narrative with the biologically expected outcomes for transfection across the huge population to a wide variety of proteins, even no proteins.

01:59:29.008 --> 01:59:34.931
The latest iteration of this weaponized piles of money consensus is this rescue the Republic thing.

01:59:35.431 --> 01:59:37.633
They will admit that processed food is bad.

01:59:37.673 --> 01:59:46.437
They're going to admit the environment is polluted, that cosmetics are toxic, that the old vaccine schedule wasn't tested, that COVID shots were bad.

01:59:47.097 --> 01:59:49.979
They're going to admit that they're going to try and fix all of these agencies.

01:59:49.999 --> 01:59:51.960
We don't want to get rid of the FDA or the CDC.

01:59:51.980 --> 01:59:55.722
We just want to fix it, put good people in there like Jay Bhattacharya or

01:59:56.460 --> 02:00:01.083
or Robert Malone, and they will promise to fix all of these with science.

02:00:01.603 --> 02:00:08.288
Don't forget, you know, at the start of the pandemic, just go look at who all of these heads were.

02:00:09.669 --> 02:00:12.551
Look at all the advisors were, they were all big pharma people.

02:00:13.912 --> 02:00:21.697
Donald Trump didn't appoint anyone different, just different swamp creatures, not the same swamp creatures as Obama, but just different ones.

02:00:22.625 --> 02:00:25.430
And so these people are not risking anything, I don't think.

02:00:25.490 --> 02:00:28.916
And if they're going to risk anything, we are either going to have to make it.

02:00:31.016 --> 02:00:38.398
advantageous and appealing for them to risk something, or we're going to have to force them to take these stands that we want them to take.

02:00:39.018 --> 02:00:55.301
And we're gonna force them to admit what they were doing in 2019 and before, so that we can see that they aren't just innocent people who are minding their own business, just trying to live life to its fullest and do their best.

02:00:56.121 --> 02:00:57.942
These were people that were already

02:00:59.414 --> 02:01:09.280
being set up, being put in place, being recruited to take part in this military exercise to convince our children that a pandemic happened.

02:01:10.860 --> 02:01:13.582
And unfortunately, they want to blame the American military.

02:01:13.622 --> 02:01:15.263
They want to blame the American government.

02:01:15.283 --> 02:01:24.068
They want to do it as awkwardly as possible so that Americans aren't organized under any set of ideas on how to fix this.

02:01:25.182 --> 02:01:30.766
that Americans will argue about what part of their government is responsible for it, or what part of our government is good.

02:01:31.206 --> 02:01:34.348
The American military takes orders from the executive branch.

02:01:35.109 --> 02:01:42.454
The American military is under direct command of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the President of the United States.

02:01:43.455 --> 02:01:51.741
So blaming the American military, whether you like it or not, is blaming the executive branch in Health and Human Services that declared the emergency under which the DOD operated.

02:01:52.521 --> 02:01:53.762
There's no other way to look at it.

02:01:55.117 --> 02:01:56.978
The laws were created by Congress.

02:01:57.578 --> 02:02:01.059
The laws that the DOD operated under were created by Congress.

02:02:01.079 --> 02:02:02.260
There's no other way to see it.

02:02:02.900 --> 02:02:05.061
They were approved by the executive branch.

02:02:06.001 --> 02:02:08.502
So blaming the patriots in the U.S.

02:02:08.562 --> 02:02:17.005
military that have given their lives and their careers to the belief in the American system is part of the controlled demolition.

02:02:20.080 --> 02:02:21.661
That's why Meryl Nass says it.

02:02:21.761 --> 02:02:32.050
That's why Sasha Latupova and Meryl Nass and Robert Malone were on stage in Stockholm at the beginning of 2023 together on world tour.

02:02:34.472 --> 02:02:47.123
Blaming the American military, not the State Department, not Health and Human Services, not Gavi, not weaponized piles of money that have stock in all of these pharmaceutical companies with the capability of making these products, none of that.

02:02:48.680 --> 02:02:51.022
But the idea is to control demolish America.

02:02:51.042 --> 02:03:00.491
And the way that they're going to do it is convince us that the old vaccine schedule is bad, that the old FDA was bad, that the old CDC was bad, but the new one will be good.

02:03:01.032 --> 02:03:03.774
The new one that Bobby Kennedy heads up will be good.

02:03:04.355 --> 02:03:08.138
The new vaccine schedule that Bobby Kennedy gets tested will be good.

02:03:08.759 --> 02:03:11.842
And we know that this is true because Steve Kirsch said it last week.

02:03:15.014 --> 02:03:20.697
And he said, that's why Bobby says he's not anti-vax, because he wants to test the schedule.

02:03:21.317 --> 02:03:23.258
He wants tested vaccines.

02:03:25.019 --> 02:03:25.319
Listen.

02:03:25.659 --> 02:03:30.982
If they're safe and effective, you should go get yours, because that's not what the news media should be doing.

02:03:31.302 --> 02:03:42.308
They should be reporting on what's actually happening and pointing out to people that side effects do occur, and that they should always, before getting any medical intervention, understand the risks and the benefits.

02:03:42.728 --> 02:03:55.254
Now, for all vaccines, it turns out that the, except in extremely rare cases, like, you know, maybe this one might have been a case, but I really don't think so.

02:03:56.334 --> 02:04:04.858
In pretty much every case I know about, the benefits of vaccination never outweigh the risks, and people should always be refusing vaccination.

02:04:04.878 --> 02:04:07.479
We've been telling people that for a long time.

02:04:07.499 --> 02:04:10.621
Okay, so you do agree that nobody should ever take another vaccine.

02:04:12.242 --> 02:04:16.865
No, people should not take any of the vaccines that are currently approved.

02:04:17.246 --> 02:04:22.830
There may be a time, Stu, in five years from now, that they actually have a safe vaccine.

02:04:22.950 --> 02:04:23.350
No, there won't.

02:04:23.451 --> 02:04:24.631
We can't rule that out.

02:04:24.932 --> 02:04:27.574
And that's why Bobby Kennedy says he's not anti-vax.

02:04:27.834 --> 02:04:32.437
That's why Bobby Kennedy says he's not anti-vax, because we can't rule that out.

02:04:32.477 --> 02:04:34.399
There may be good vaccines in the future.

02:04:38.257 --> 02:05:05.175
And that's why none of these people, none of these experts with a huge, you know, resume in virology or recombinant DNA or vaccine technology or whatever, like Robert Malone and Merrill Nass and, you know, the bioweapons expert or Jessica Rose, the virologist, computational biologist, immunologist, or any of these other people will not discuss any of these things, even though they've discussed them with me in 2021 and beyond.

02:05:05.895 --> 02:05:07.637
Even though I was on the book,

02:05:08.537 --> 02:05:14.201
the book team for a year, even though all the people that wrote that book understand these things and have talked to me about them.

02:05:14.681 --> 02:05:27.330
They will all ignore them because they are covering up a operation that took advantage of a known increase in all cause mortality, sweeped a few extra together with murder and lies.

02:05:27.410 --> 02:05:29.191
Maybe that was the military operation.

02:05:29.831 --> 02:05:37.497
And they use supplementary oxygen and opioid crisis and a lot of other things to convince us that something went endemic, something novel.

02:05:38.416 --> 02:05:40.857
that was released from a laboratory went endemic.

02:05:40.897 --> 02:05:53.664
And that's why the life expectancy in America has gone down and why all these old people have died and all this excess death is there is because of this endemic new virus that they knew would go endemic and yada, yada, yada.

02:05:53.704 --> 02:05:56.265
And that's no differentiatable from a background.

02:05:56.305 --> 02:05:58.146
That's the lie that they are telling you.

02:05:58.966 --> 02:06:02.468
That is the molecular biological explanation for this, that

02:06:03.297 --> 02:06:07.345
begs the question of why did they seed all these ideas then?

02:06:07.385 --> 02:06:11.312
Well, they seeded these ideas because they expect it to happen over the next few years.

02:06:13.109 --> 02:06:18.412
as they continue to roll out transfection in old people, they expect these things to happen.

02:06:18.452 --> 02:06:34.402
More cardiac arrests, more strokes, more clots, more autoimmune disease, more allergies, more stroking out, more neurological diseases, more everything, more Alzheimer's, more cancer.

02:06:34.582 --> 02:06:40.105
Everything is expected when you start transfecting this old population that if they all live

02:06:40.782 --> 02:06:47.465
To be the ripe old age of 90, all of these Western countries will be bankrupted by the medical costs of these old people.

02:06:48.745 --> 02:06:52.247
And all of these Western countries, and even China, has known that this was coming.

02:06:52.687 --> 02:06:53.747
They have prepared for it.

02:06:53.787 --> 02:07:04.932
They've taken advantage of it in order to seed a narrative that we're supposed to teach our kids, which is that the mystery virus, whatever it was, coming from a laboratory or a bat cave is responsible for killing millions of people.

02:07:04.972 --> 02:07:05.812
Let's not talk about 2020.

02:07:06.873 --> 02:07:09.794
Let's just make sure that everybody knows that the COVID shots are bad.

02:07:13.194 --> 02:07:18.638
Of course, there's lots of things that they told us about AIDS that have a more plausible biological explanation.

02:07:18.698 --> 02:07:26.983
A lot of things they told us about the previous vaccine schedule and MMR or some component of the vaccine schedule and genetic vulnerabilities.

02:07:27.023 --> 02:07:28.164
There's a better explanation.

02:07:28.744 --> 02:07:32.487
Also for coronavirus and for the pandemic, there's a better explanation.

02:07:33.467 --> 02:07:36.288
And all of these explanations are better biologically.

02:07:36.568 --> 02:07:38.409
They're also better with parsimony.

02:07:38.929 --> 02:07:46.211
And they also take into account many more of the disparate, supposedly incongruent observations in biology in the past.

02:07:47.391 --> 02:07:49.432
We are going to build this biology.

02:07:49.472 --> 02:07:52.953
We are going to build the biology that edifies all of these explanations.

02:07:53.673 --> 02:07:59.582
And by Christmas time, you are all gonna be able to send your friends to this list, this course list.

02:07:59.642 --> 02:08:01.865
It's only gonna be about eight days long.

02:08:02.546 --> 02:08:04.309
This is not one of those days, right?

02:08:04.329 --> 02:08:05.771
We are building the course right now.

02:08:05.811 --> 02:08:06.913
There's gonna be a summary.

02:08:08.027 --> 02:08:14.509
of the first maybe four days of this course in one hour and a half, and then the next four days in another hour and a half.

02:08:14.549 --> 02:08:21.871
And that eight days of coursework, eight hours of coursework, can be on eight substack articles, and we can be done with this.

02:08:22.011 --> 02:08:35.474
And everybody can understand the illusion of virology, the illusion of biologics in a pharmaceutical company, and the illusion that placebo could create, and the illusion that the genetic

02:08:36.503 --> 02:08:44.526
model, the oversimplification of the genetic model of life created by the Human Genome Project can be dispelled.

02:08:44.606 --> 02:08:53.489
And we can teach our children, our high school kids, and our budding scientists a true appreciation for the irreducible complexity that is our biology.

02:08:53.529 --> 02:08:54.709
That's the goal here.

02:08:55.150 --> 02:08:56.370
We need a new consensus.

02:08:57.270 --> 02:08:58.231
I hope you'll help me get it.

02:08:58.551 --> 02:09:00.851
And I will see you this afternoon after lunch.

02:09:01.212 --> 02:09:01.952
It's wow.

02:09:03.080 --> 02:09:07.045
I'm gonna have to be quick, and I'm gonna have to be less talkative.

02:09:08.126 --> 02:09:11.230
Maybe at 1.30 or maybe at 13.13, I'm not sure.

02:09:11.270 --> 02:09:16.216
We'll be doing the class number four of Matt Briggs.

02:09:16.857 --> 02:09:20.201
And maybe I'm just gonna watch and talk very little, because my throat's already very tired.

02:09:20.621 --> 02:09:21.603
Thanks very much for joining me.

02:09:21.643 --> 02:09:22.544
I'll see you in a few minutes.